Foundation and the Idrisids  View of Fes el-Bali and the minaret of the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II, which commemorates Idris II, one of the founders of Fez

The city was first founded in 789 as Madinat Fas on the southeast bank of the Jawhar River (now known as the Fez River) by Idris I, founder of the Idrisid dynasty. Idris I was an Hasanid Sharif from Arabia who was forced to flee the Hejaz after a failed revolt against the Abbasid Caliphate, eventually moving to northern Morocco and conquereing much of the area.[1][2] His son, Idris II,[3] built a settlement called al-ʿĀliyá on the opposing river bank in 809 and moved his capital here from Walili (Volubilis).[4]: 35 [5]: 35 [6]: 83  The early population was composed mostly of Berbers, along with hundreds of Arab warriors from Kairouan who made up Idris II's entourage.[4]: 35, 41 [6]: 82 

Arab immigration to Fez increased afterwards. Andalusi families of mixed Arab and Iberian descent,[7] who were expelled from Córdoba after a rebellion in 817–818 against al-Hakam I, were one major component of the immigrant population. These families mainly settled in Madinat Fas.[4]: 46–47  These two waves of immigrants gave the city its Arabic character and would subsequently give their name to the districts of 'Adwat Al-Andalus  [ar] and 'Adwat al-Qarawiyyin  [ar].[8]: 51  The city also had a prominent Jewish community, probably consisting of Zenata Berbers who had previously converted to Judaism, as well as a small remaining Christian population for a time. The Jews were especially concentrated in a northeastern district of al-ʿĀliyá, known as Funduq el-Yihoudi (near the present-day Bab Guissa gate).[4]: 42–44 

 Interior of the Qarawiyin Mosque, founded in 859

Following the death of Idris II in 828 the region was divided among his sons. The eldest, Muhammad, received Fez, but some of his brothers attempted to break away from his leadership, resulting in an internecine conflict. Although the Idrisid realm was eventually reunified and enjoyed a period of peace under Ali ibn Muhammad and Yahya ibn Muhammad, it fell into decline again in the late 9th century.[9]

 A page from a 16th century manuscript of Rawḍ al-Qirṭās, a book about the history of Fes under the Idrisids, Banu Zanata, Almoravids, Almohads and Marinids.[10][11]

In the 10th century, the city was contested by the Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba and the Fatimid Caliphate of Ifriqiya (Tunisia), who ruled the city through a host of Zenata clients.[6]: 88–91 [9][12]: 63–64, 74–75  The Fatimids took the city in 927 and expelled the Idrisids definitively, after which their Miknasa (one of the Zenata tribes) were installed there. The city, along with much of northern Morocco, continued to change hands between the proxies of Córdoba and the proxies of the Fatimids for many decades. Following another successful invasion by Buluggin ibn Ziri in 979 and a brief period of Fatimid control, the forces of Al-Mansur of Cordoba managed to retake the region again, expelling the Fatimids permanently.[9] From 980 (or from 986[13][4]), Fez was ruled by a Zenata dynasty from the Maghrawa tribe, who were allies of the Caliphate of Córdoba. They maintained this control even after the Caliphate's collapse in the early 11th century and until the arrival of the Almoravids.[5]: 16 [13][6]: 91 

Fez continued to grow under Zenata control, even though conflicts between its two settlements, Madinat Fas and al-ʿĀliyá, flared up during periods of political rivalry. Ziri ibn Atiyya, the first ruler of the new dynasty, had a troubled reign.[4]: 50  However, Ibn Atiyya's descendant Dunas ibn Hamama, ruling between 1037 and 1049, was responsible for improving the city's infrastructure.[14] He developed much of Fez's water supply system, which has largely survived up to the present day.[14][15] Other structures built in his time included hammams (bathhouses), mosques, and the first bridges over the Oued Bou Khrareb (mostly rebuilt in later eras).[4]: 51 [14][16][17] The two cities became increasingly integrated: the open space between the two was filled up by new houses and up to six bridges across the river allowed for easier passage between them.[18]: 36  A decade after Dunas, between 1059 and 1061, the two cities were ruled separately by two brothers who were rival Zenata emirs that fought with each other: al-ʿĀliyá was controlled by an emir named Al-Gisa and Madinat Fas was controlled by Al-Fetouh. Both brothers fortified their respective shores, and their names have been preserved in two of the city's gates to this day: Bab Guissa (or Bab Gisa) in the north and Bab Ftouh in the south.[19]: 31 [4]: 50, 53, 110 

Almoravids, Almohads and Marinids

In 1069–1070 (or possibly a few years later[13]), Fez was conquered by the Almoravids under Yusuf ibn Tashfin. In the same year of this conquest, Yusuf ibn Tashfin unified Madinat Fas and al-ʿĀliyá into one city. The walls dividing them were destroyed, bridges connecting them were built or renovated, and a new circuit of walls was constructed that encompassed both cities. A kasbah (Arabic term for "citadel") was built at the western edge of the city (just west of Bab Bou Jeloud today) to house the city's governor and garrison.[4]: 53 [15] Although the capital was moved to Marrakesh under the Almoravids, Fez acquired a reputation for Maliki legal scholarship and remained an important centre of trade and industry.[4]: 52–54 [5]: 17–18  Almoravid impact on the city's structure was such that Yusuf ibn Tashfin is sometimes considered to be the second founder of Fez.[20]

 Remains of the city walls on the north side of Fes el-Bali, which were rebuilt during the Almohad period (12th-13th century)

In 1145 the Almohad leader Abd al-Mu'min besieged and conquered the city during the Almohad overthrow of the Almoravids. Due to the ferocious resistance they encountered from the local population, the Almohads demolished the city's fortifications.[4]: 55 [15] However, due to Fez's continuing economic and military importance, the Almohad caliph Ya'qub al-Mansur ordered the reconstruction of the ramparts.[19]: 36 [15]: 606  The walls were completed by his successor Muhammad al-Nasir in 1204,[19]: 36  giving them their definitive shape and establishing the perimeter of Fes el-Bali to this day.[4]: 56 [15][21]: 19  The Almohads built the Kasbah Bou Jeloud on the site of the former Almoravid kasbah[4]: 56  and also built the first kasbah occupying the site of the current Kasbah an-Nouar.[18]: 72 [19]: 109  Not all the land within the city walls was densely inhabited; much of it was still relatively open and was occupied by crops and gardens used by the inhabitants.[21]: 19  During the 12th century, the city was one of the largest in the world,[22][23] with an estimated population of 200,000.[22] By 1200, Fez and Cairo had probably become the largest Muslim cities.[24]

 The Bou Inania Madrasa, the most important madrasa built by the Marinids in Fes (14th century)

In 1250, Fez regained its status as the capital under the Marinid dynasty. The city reached its golden age in the Marinid period.[25]: 16 [4]: 61–78 [5]: 20  In 1276, an anti-Marinid revolt resulted in a massacre of the Jewish community that was stopped by the intervention of the ruler Abu Yusuf Ya'qub.[26][27] Following the revolt, Abu Yusuf Yaqub founded Fes Jdid as the new administrative and military centre. Under the Marinids, many of the principal monuments in the medina were built and the city established its reputation as an important intellectual centre.[4]: 61–78 [28] Between 1271 and 1357 seven madrasas were built, which are among the best examples of Moroccan architecture and some of the most richly decorated monuments in Fez.[29]: 285–289, 291–293 [30][31]: 312–314 

 Jews of Fez photographed in the 1900s. The Mellah was the traditional Jewish quarter of the city since the 15th century.

The Jewish quarter of Fez, the Mellah, was created in Fes Jdid at some point during the Marinid period. The exact date and circumstances of its formation are not firmly established,[32][27] but many scholars date the transfer of the Jewish population from Fes el-Bali to the new Mellah to the 15th century, a period of political tension and instability. In particular, Jewish sources describe the transfer as a consequence of the rediscovery of Idris II's body in the heart of the city in 1437, which caused the surrounding area—if not the entire city—to acquire a holy (haram) status, requiring that non-Muslims be removed from the area.[32][33][34][35] The Moroccan Jewish community had initially consisted of indigenous local Jews (known as the Toshavim) but these were joined by Western Sephardic Jews fleeing from the Iberian Peninsula (known as the Megorashim) in subsequent generations, especially after the 1492 expulsion of Jews from Spain and 1496 expulsion of Jews from Portugal.[36]

The 1465 Moroccan revolt overthrew the last Marinid sultan. In 1472 the Wattasids, another Zenata dynasty which had previously served as viziers under the Marinid sultans, succeeded as rulers of Morocco from Fez.[12]: 114–115 [37] They perpetuated the structure of the Marinid state and continued its policies, but were unable to control all of Morocco.[25]: 15 [12]: 207–209  They did not contribute significantly to the physical fabric of Fez.[38]

Saadis and 'Alawis  Borj Nord, a Saadi fortress built in the 16th century overlooking Fez from the north

In the 16th century the Saadis, a dynasty claiming prophetic heritage, rose to power in southern Morocco and challenged the Wattasids. Around the same time, the Ottoman Empire came close to Fez after its conquest of Algeria. In January 1549, the Saadi sultan Mohammed ash-Sheikh took Fez and ousted the last Wattasid sultan Ali Abu Hassun. The Wattasids later retook the city in 1554 with Ottoman support, but this reconquest was short-lived and later that same year the Wattasids were decisively defeated by the Saadis.[8]: 157  The Ottomans attempted to invade Morocco after the assassination of Mohammed ash-Sheikh in 1558, but were stopped by his son Abdallah al-Ghalib at the Battle of Wadi al-Laban north of Fez.[8]: 158  After the death of Abdallah al-Ghalib a new power struggle emerged. Abd al-Malik, Abdallah's brother, captured Fez with Ottoman support and ousted his nephew Abu Abdullah from the throne. This led to the Battle of Wadi al-Makhazin (also known as Battle of the Three Kings) in which Abd al-Malik's army defeated an invading Portuguese army, ensuring Moroccan independence. Abd al-Malik was killed during the battle and was succeeded by Ahmad al-Mansur (r. 1578–1603).[39]

The Saadis, who used Marrakesh again as their capital, did not lavish much attention on Fez, with the exception of the ornate ablutions pavilions added to the Qarawiyyin Mosque's courtyard during their time.[40]: 70  Perhaps as a result of persistent tensions with the city's inhabitants, the Saadis built a number of new forts and bastions around the city which appear to have been aimed at keeping control over the local population.[a]

After the long reign of Ahmad al-Mansur, the Saadi state fell into civil war between his sons and potential successors. Fez became a rival seat of power for a number of brothers vying against other family members ruling from Marrakesh. Both cities changed hands multiple times until the internecine conflict finally ended in 1627.[39][42] Despite the reunification of the realm after 1627, the Saadis were in full decline and Fez had already suffered considerably from the repeated conquests and reconquests during the conflict.[13] In 1641, Muhammad al-Haj of the Sanhaja Dilā' Sufi order occupied Fez.[43]: 88  The time was particularly difficult for Fessi Jews.[43]: 88 

 Patio of Moulay Rashid (17th century) inside the Royal Palace of Fez (photo from 1922)

It was only when the founder of the 'Alawi dynasty, Moulay Rashid, took Fez in 1666 that the city saw a revival and became the capital again, albeit briefly.[21]: 25  Moulay Rashid set about restoring the city after a long period of neglect. He built the Kasbah Cherarda (also known as the Kasbah al-Khemis) to the north of Fes Jdid in order to house a large part of his tribal troops.[4]: 84 [21]: 25  He also restored or rebuilt what became known as the Kasbah an-Nouar, which became the living quarters of his followers from the Tafilalt region (the 'Alawi dynasty's ancestral home).[4]: 84 [18]: 72–73  Moulay Rashid also built a large new madrasa, the Cherratine Madrasa, in 1670.[30]

After Rashid's death, Fez underwent another dark period. Moulay Isma'il, his successor, apparently disliked the city—possibly due to a rebellion there in his early reign—and chose nearby Meknès as his capital instead.[4]: 84  Although he did restore or rebuild some major monuments in the city, such as the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II, he also frequently imposed heavy taxes on the city's inhabitants and sometimes even forcibly transferred parts of its population to repopulate other cities in the country.[4]: 84–85  After his death, Morocco was plunged into anarchy and decades of conflict between his sons who vied to succeed him. Fez suffered particularly from repeated conflicts with the Udayas (or Oudayas), a guich tribe (vassal tribe serving as a garrison and military force) previously installed in the Kasbah Cherarda by Moulay Isma'il. Sultan Moulay Abdallah, who reigned intermittently during this period and used Fez as a capital, was initially welcomed in 1728–29 as an enemy of the Udayas, but relations between him and the city's population quickly soured due to his choice of governor. He immediately built a separate fortified palace in the countryside, Dar Dbibegh, where he resided instead. For nearly three more decades the city remained in more or less perpetual conflict with both the Udayas and the 'Alawi sultans.[4]: 85–86 

Starting with the reign of Moulay Muhammad ibn Abdallah, between 1757 and 1790, the country stabilized and Fez finally regained its fortunes. Although its status was partly shared with Marrakesh, it remained the capital of Morocco for the rest of the 'Alawi period up to the 20th century.[4]: 88 [5]: 25–26  The 'Alawis continued to rebuild or restore various monuments and undertook a series of extensions to the Royal Palace.[30][44] The sultans and their entourages also became more and more closely associated with the elites of Fez and other urban centers, with the ulama (religious scholars) of Fez being particularly influential. After Moulay Slimane's death, powerful families from Fez became the main players of the country's political and intellectual scene.[8]: 242–247 

The Tijani Sufi order, started by Ahmad al-Tijani (d. 1815), has had its spiritual center in Fez since al-Tijani moved here from Algeria in 1789.[8]: 244  The order spread quickly among the literary elite of North West Africa and its ulama had significant religious, intellectual, and political influence in Fez and beyond.[45] Until the 19th century the city was the only source of fezzes (also known as the tarboosh).[3]

 The New Mechouar, created by Moulay Hassan I in the late 19th century at the northern entrance to Fes Jdid and the Royal Palace; on the left is the entrance to the Dar al-Makina, dating from the same time

The last major change to Fez's topography before the 20th century was made during the reign of Moulay Hassan I (1873–1894), who finally connected Fes Jdid and Fes el-Bali by building a walled corridor between them.[4]: 89 [21]: 25–26  New gardens and summer palaces, used by the royals and the capital's high society, were built within the corridor, such as the Jnan Sbil Gardens and the Dar Batha palace.[4]: 89–90 [44] Moulay Hassan also expanded the old Royal Palace itself, extending its entrance up to the current location of the Old Mechouar while adding the New Mechouar, along with the Dar al-Makina, to the north. The expansion separated the Moulay Abdallah neighbourhood to the northwest from the rest of Fes Jdid.[44]

Fez played a central role in the Hafidhiya, the brief civil war that erupted when Abdelhafid challenged his brother Abdelaziz for the throne. The ulama of Fez, led by the Sufi modernist Muhammad Bin Abdul-Kabir Al-Kattani, offered their conditioned support to Abd al-Hafid, which turned the tide of the conflict.[46][47] Abdelaziz was defeated in the Battle of Marrakesh in 1908.[46]: 76–78  Abdelhafid's reign soon deteriorated and in early 1911 the sultan was besieged in Fez by the tribes of the Middle Atlas. Abdelhafid appealed for French help and a French force under Colonel Charles Émile Moinier [fr] arrived in Fez on May 21 and established a command centre at Dar Dbibegh.[13][8]: 313 [46]: 78 

Colonial period  The abdication of Abd al-Hafid, Sultan of Morocco in 1912

In 1912, French colonial rule was instituted over Morocco following the Treaty of Fes. One immediate consequence was the 1912 riots in Fez, a popular uprising which included deadly attacks targeting Europeans as well as native Jewish inhabitants in the Mellah, followed by an even deadlier repression.[48][49] The first French resident general, Hubert Lyautey, decided to move the administrative capital of the Protectorate to Rabat in 1912–1913, which has remained the capital ever since.[50]: 149 [51][52]

A number of social and physical changes took place during this period and across the 20th century. Starting under Lyautey, one important policy with long-term consequences was the decision to largely forego redevelopment of existing historic walled cities in Morocco and to intentionally preserve them as sites of historic heritage, still known today as "medinas". Instead, the French administration built new modern cities (the Villes Nouvelles) just outside the old cities, where European settlers largely resided with modern Western-style amenities. This was part of a larger "policy of association" adopted by Lyautey which favoured various forms of indirect colonial rule by preserving local institutions and elites, in contrast with other French colonial policies that had favoured "assimilation".[53][54][55] The Ville Nouvelle also became known as Dar Dbibegh by Moroccans, as the former palace of Moulay Abdallah was located in the same area.[13]

 A street in the modern Ville Nouvelle ("New City") of Fez

The creation of the separate French Ville Nouvelle to the west had a wider impact on the entire city's development.[55] While new colonial policies preserved historic monuments, they stalled urban development in heritage areas.[53] Scholar Janet Abu-Lughod has argued that these policies created a kind of urban "apartheid" between the indigenous Moroccan urban areas, who were forced to remain stagnant in terms of urban development and architectural innovation, and the new, mainly European-inhabited planned cities, which expanded to occupy lands formerly used by Moroccans outside the city.[56][57]: 165–166 [53] This separation was partly softened, however, by wealthy Moroccans who started moving into the Ville Nouvelles during this period.[58][5]: 26  By contrast, the old city (medina) of Fez was increasingly settled by poorer rural migrants from the countryside.[5]: 26 

Fez also played a role in the Moroccan nationalist movement and in protests against the French colonial regime. Many Moroccan nationalists received their education at the Al-Qarawiyyin University and some of their informal political networks were established thanks to this shared educational background.[59]: 140, 146  In July 1930, the students and other inhabitants protested against the Berber Dahir, decreed by the French authorities in May of that year.[60][59]: 143–144  In 1937, the Al-Qarawiyyin Mosque and R'cif Mosque were rallying points for demonstrations against a violent crackdown on Moroccan protesters in the nearby city of Meknes, which ended with French troops being deployed across Fes el-Bali, including at the mosques themselves.[12]: 387–389 [59]: 168  Towards the end of World War II, Moroccan nationalists gathered in Fez to draft a demand for independence which they submitted to the Allies on January 11, 1944. This resulted in the arrest of nationalist leaders followed by the violent suppression of protests across many cities, including Fez.[61][59]: 255 

Post-independence era

After Morocco regained its independence in 1956, many of the trends begun under colonial rule continued and accelerated. Much of Fez's bourgeois classes moved to the growing metropolises of Casablanca and the capital, Rabat.[5]: 26 [62]: 40  The Jewish population was particularly depleted, either moving to Casablanca or emigrating to countries like France, Canada, and Israel. Although the population of the city grew, it did so only slowly up until the late 1960s, when the pace of growth finally accelerated.[61]: 216  Throughout this period Fez nonetheless remained the country's third largest urban center.[5]: 26 [61]: 216  Between 1971 and 2000, the population of the city roughly tripled from 325,000 to 940,000, making it the second largest city in Morocco.[6]: 376  The Ville Nouvelle became the locus of further development, with new peripheral neighbourhoods–with inconsistent housing quality–spreading outwards around it.[61] In 1963 the University of Al-Qarawiyyin was reorganized as a state university,[63] while a new public university, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, was founded in 1975 in the Ville Nouvelle.[64] In 1981, the old city, consisting of Fes el-Bali and Fes Jdid, was classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[65]

Social inequalities and economic precarity were accentuated during the repressive reign of King Hassan II and the period known as the Years of Lead (roughly 1975–1990).[46]: 170  Fez was strongly affected by unemployment and lack of housing. Austerity measures led to several riots and uprisings across other cities during the 1980s. On December 14, 1990, a general strike was called and led to protests and rioting by university students and youths in Fez. Buildings were burned and looted, including the Hôtel des Mérinides, a luxury hotel overlooking Fes el-Bali and dating to the time of Lyautey. Thousands were arrested and at least five were killed. The government promised to investigate and raise wages, though some of these measures were dismissed by the opposition.[6]: 377 [66][67][68]

Today Fez remains a regional capital and one of Morocco's most important cities. Many of the former notable families of Fez still make up a large part of the country's political elite.[69] It is also a major tourism destination due to its historical heritage. In recent years efforts have been underway to restore and rehabilitate the old medina, ranging from the restoration of individual monuments to attempts to rehabilitate the Fez River.[70][71][72][73]

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