Context of Oman

Oman ( (listen) oh-MAHN; Arabic: عُمَان, [ʕʊˈmaːn]), officially the Sultanate of Oman (Arabic: سلْطنةُ عُمان Salṭanat(u) ʻUmān), is a country located in Western Asia. It is situated on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and spans the mouth of the Persian Gulf. Oman shares land borders with Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen, while sharing maritime borders with Iran and Pakistan. Oman has a population of 5,492,196 and is ranked the 120th most popul...Read more

Oman ( (listen) oh-MAHN; Arabic: عُمَان, [ʕʊˈmaːn]), officially the Sultanate of Oman (Arabic: سلْطنةُ عُمان Salṭanat(u) ʻUmān), is a country located in Western Asia. It is situated on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and spans the mouth of the Persian Gulf. Oman shares land borders with Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen, while sharing maritime borders with Iran and Pakistan. Oman has a population of 5,492,196 and is ranked the 120th most populous country in the world.

The coast is formed by the Arabian Sea on the southeast, and the Gulf of Oman on the northeast. The Madha and Musandam exclaves are surrounded by the United Arab Emirates on their land borders, with the Strait of Hormuz (which it shares with Iran) and the Gulf of Oman forming Musandam's coastal boundaries. Muscat is the nation's capital and largest city.

From the 17th century, the Omani Sultanate was an empire, vying with the Portuguese and British empires for influence in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean. At its peak in the 19th century, Omani influence and control extended across the Strait of Hormuz to Iran and Pakistan, and as far south as Zanzibar. When its power declined in the 20th century, the sultanate came under the influence of the United Kingdom. For over 300 years, the relations built between the two empires were based on mutual benefit. The UK recognized Oman's geographical importance as a trading hub that secured their trading lanes in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean and protected their empire in the Indian sub-continent. Historically, Muscat was the principal trading port of the Persian Gulf region.

Oman is an absolute monarchy led by a Sultan, with power passed down through the male line. Qaboos bin Said was the Sultan from 1970 until his death on 10 January 2020. Qaboos bin Said, who died childless, had named his cousin, Haitham bin Tariq, as his successor in a letter, and the family confirmed him as the new Sultan of Oman.

Formerly a maritime empire, Oman is the oldest continuously independent state in the Arab world. It is a member of the United Nations, the Arab League, the Gulf Cooperation Council, the Non-Aligned Movement and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. It has oil reserves ranked 22nd globally. In 2010, the United Nations Development Programme ranked Oman as the most improved nation in the world in terms of development during the preceding 40 years. A portion of its economy involves tourism and trading fish, dates and other agricultural produce. Oman is categorized as a high-income economy and, as of 2022, ranks as the 64th most peaceful country in the world according to the Global Peace Index.

More about Oman

Basic information
  • Currency Omani rial
  • Native name سلطنة عمان
  • Calling code +968
  • Internet domain .om
  • Mains voltage 240V/50Hz
  • Democracy index 3
Population, Area & Driving side
  • Population 4829480
  • Area 309500
  • Driving side right
History
  • Prehistory and ancient history
     
    Late Iron Age sites in Oman

    At Aybut Al Auwal, in the Dhofar Governorate of Oman, a site was...Read more

    Prehistory and ancient history
     
    Late Iron Age sites in Oman

    At Aybut Al Auwal, in the Dhofar Governorate of Oman, a site was discovered in 2011 containing more than 100 surface scatters of stone tools, belonging to a regionally specific African lithic industry—the late Nubian Complex—known previously only from the northeast and Horn of Africa. Two optically stimulated luminescence age estimates place the Arabian Nubian Complex at 106,000 years old. This supports the proposition that early human populations moved from Africa into Arabia during the Late Pleistocene.[1]

    In recent years surveys have uncovered Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites on the eastern coast. Main Palaeolithic sites include Saiwan-Ghunaim in the Barr al-Hikman.[2] Archaeological remains are particularly numerous for the Bronze Age Umm an-Nar and Wadi Suq periods. Sites such as Bat show professional wheel-turned pottery, excellent hand-made stone vessels, a metals industry and monumental architecture .[3] The Early (1300‒300 BCE) and Late Iron Ages (100 BCE‒300 CE) show more differences than similarities to each other. Thereafter, until the coming of Ibadi Islam, little or nothing is known.[citation needed]

    There is considerable agreement in sources that frankincense was used by traders in 1500 BCE. The Land of Frankincense, a UNESCO World Heritage site, dramatically illustrates that the incense constituted testimony to South Arabian civilizations.

    During the 8th century BCE, it is believed that the Yaarub, the descendant of Qahtan, ruled the entire region of Yemen, including Oman. Wathil bin Himyar bin Abd-Shams (Saba) bin Yashjub (Yaman) bin Yarub bin Qahtan later ruled Oman.[4] It is thus believed that the Yaarubah were the first settlers in Oman from Yemen.[5]

    In the 1970s and 1980s scholars like John C. Wilkinson[6] believed by virtue of oral history that in the 6th century BCE, the Achaemenids exerted control over the Omani peninsula, most likely ruling from a coastal centre such as Suhar.[7] Central Oman has its own indigenous Samad Late Iron Age cultural assemblage named eponymously from Samad al-Shan. In the northern part of the Oman Peninsula the Recent Pre-Islamic Period begins in the 3rd century BCE and extends into the 3rd century CE. Whether or not Persians brought south-eastern Arabian under their control is a moot point, since the lack of Persian finds speak against this belief. M. Caussin de Percevel suggests that Shammir bin Wathil bin Himyar recognized the authority of Cyrus the Great over Oman in 536 BCE.[4]

     
    The Archaeological Sites of Bat, Al-Khutm and Al-Ayn in Ad Dhahirah, built in the 3rd Millennium BCE, are UNESCO World Heritage.

    Sumerian tablets referred to Oman as "Magan"[8][9] and in the Akkadian language "Makan",[10][11] a name which links Oman's ancient copper resources.[12] Mazoon, a Persian name used to refer to Oman's region, which was part of the Sasanian Empire.

    Arab settlement

    Over centuries tribes from western Arabia settled in Oman, making a living by fishing, farming, herding or stock breeding, and many present day Omani families trace their ancestral roots to other parts of Arabia. Arab migration to Oman started from northern-western and south-western Arabia and those who chose to settle had to compete with the indigenous population for the best arable land. When Arab tribes started to migrate to Oman, there were two distinct groups. One group, a segment of the Azd tribe migrated from Yemen in A.D. 120[13]/200 following the collapse of Marib Dam, while the other group migrated a few centuries before the birth of Islam from Nejd (present-day Saudi Arabia), named Nizari. Other historians believe that the Yaarubah from Qahtan which belong to an older branch, were the first settlers of Oman from Yemen, and then came the Azd.[5]

     
    Ruins of Khor Rori, built between 100 BCE & 100 CE

    The Azd settlers in Oman are descendants of Nasr bin Azd and were later known as "the Al-Azd of Oman".[13] Seventy years after the first Azd migration, another branch of Alazdi under Malik bin Fahm, the founder of Kingdom of Tanukhites on the west of Euphrates, is believed to have settled in Oman.[13] According to Al-Kalbi, Malik bin Fahm was the first settler of Alazd.[14] He is said to have first settled in Qalhat. By this account, Malik, with an armed force of more than 6000 men and horses, fought against the Marzban, who served an ambiguously named Persian king in the battle of Salut in Oman and eventually defeated the Persian forces.[5][15][16][17] This account is, however, semi-legendary and seems to condense multiple centuries of migration and conflict into a story of two campaigns that exaggerate the success of the Arabs. The account may also represent an amalgamation of various traditions from not only the Arab tribes but also the region's original inhabitants. Furthermore, no date can be determined for the events of this story.[15][18][19]

    In the 7th century CE, Omanis came in contact with and accepted Islam.[20][21] The conversion of Omanis to Islam is ascribed to Amr ibn al-As, who was sent by the prophet Muhammad during the Expedition of Zaid ibn Haritha (Hisma). Amer was dispatched to meet with Jaifer and Abd, the sons of Julanda who ruled Oman. They appear to have readily embraced Islam.[22]

    Imamate of Oman

    Omani Azd used to travel to Basra for trade, which was a centre of Islam, during the Umayyad empire. Omani Azd were granted a section of Basra, where they could settle and attend to their needs. Many of the Omani Azd who settled in Basra became wealthy merchants and, under their leader Muhallab bin Abi Sufrah, started to expand their influence of power eastwards towards Khorasan. Ibadhi Islam originated in Basra through its founder, Abdullah ibn Ibadh, around the year 650 CE; the Omani Azd in Iraq would subsequently adopt this as their predominant faith. Later, Al-hajjaj, the governor of Iraq, came into conflict with the Ibadhis, which forced them back to Oman. Among those who returned was the scholar Jaber bin Zaid. His return (and the return of many other scholars) greatly enhanced the Ibadhi movement in Oman.[23] Alhajjaj also made an attempt to subjugate Oman, then ruled by Suleiman and Said (the sons of Abbad bin Julanda). Alhajjaj dispatched Mujjaah bin Shiwah, who was confronted by Said bin Abbad. This confrontation devastated Said's army, after which he and his forces retreated to the Jebel Akhdar (mountains). Mujjaah and his forces went after Said, successfully flushing them out from hiding in Wadi Mastall. Mujjaah later moved towards the coast, where he confronted Suleiman bin Abbad. The battle was won by Suleiman's forces. Alhajjaj, however, sent another force (under Abdulrahman bin Suleiman); he eventually won the war, taking over the governance of Oman.[24][25][26]

     
    Bahla Fort, a UNESCO World Heritage site, was built between 12th and 15th c. by the Nabhani dynasty.

    The first elective Imamate of Oman is believed to have been established shortly after the fall of the Umayyad Dynasty in 750/755 AD, when Janaħ bin ʕibadah Alħinnawi was elected.[23][27] Other scholars claim that Janaħ bin Ibadah served as a Wāli (governor) under the Umayyad dynasty (and later ratified the Imamate), and that Julanda bin Masud was the first elected Imam of Oman, in A.D. 751.[28][29] The first Imamate reached its peak power in the ninth century A.D.[23] The Imamate established a maritime empire whose fleet controlled the Gulf, during a time when trade with the Abbasid Dynasty, the Far East, and Africa flourished.[30] The authority of the Imams started to decline due to power struggles, the constant interventions of Abbasid, and the rise of the Seljuk Empire.[31][28]

    Nabhani dynasty

    During the 11th and 12th centuries, the Omani coast was in the sphere of influence of the Seljuk Empire. They were expelled in 1154, when the Nabhani dynasty came to power.[31] The Nabhanis ruled as muluk, or kings, while the Imams were reduced to largely symbolic significance. The capital of the dynasty was Bahla.[32] The Banu Nabhan controlled the trade in frankincense on the overland route via Sohar to the Yabrin oasis, and then north to Bahrain, Baghdad and Damascus.[33] The mango-tree was introduced to Oman during the time of Nabhani dynasty, by ElFellah bin Muhsin.[5][34] The Nabhani dynasty started to deteriorate in 1507 when Portuguese colonisers captured the coastal city of Muscat, and gradually extended their control along the coast up to Sohar in the north and down to Sur in the southeast.[35] Other historians argue that the Nabhani dynasty ended earlier in A.D. 1435 when conflicts between the dynasty and Alhinawis arose, which led to the restoration of the elective Imamate.[5]

    Portuguese era
     
    The Portuguese Empire ruled Oman for 143 years (1507–1650).

    A decade after Vasco da Gama's successful voyage around the Cape of Good Hope and to India in 1497–98, the Portuguese arrived in Oman and occupied Muscat for a 143-year period, from 1507 to 1650. In need of an outpost to protect their sea lanes, the Portuguese built up and fortified the city, where remnants of their Portuguese architectural style still exist. Later, several more Omani cities were colonized in the early 16th century by the Portuguese, to control the entrances of the Persian Gulf and trade in the region as part of a web of fortresses in the region, from Basra to Hormuz.

    However, in 1552 an Ottoman fleet briefly captured the fort in Muscat, during their fight for control of the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean, but soon departed after destroying the surroundings of the fortress.[36]

    Later in the 17th century using is bases in Oman, Portugal took on the biggest battle ever taken in the Persian Gulf (Battle off Hormuz (1625)). The Portuguese force fought against a combined armada of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and English East India Company support by the Safavid empire. The result of the battle was a draw but it resulted in the loss of Portuguese influence in the Gulf.[37]

    Several cities were sketched in the 17th century and appear in the António Bocarro Book of fortress.[38]

     
    Portuguese presence in the 16th and 18th century in the Persian Gulf
    Yaruba dynasty (1624–1744)
     
    Following the expulsion of the Portuguese Empire, Oman became one of the powers in the western Indian Ocean from 1698 onwards.[39]

    The Ottoman Empire temporarily captured Muscat from the Portuguese again in 1581 and held it until 1588. During the 17th century, the Omanis were reunited by the Yaruba Imams. Nasir bin Murshid became the first Yaarubah Imam in 1624, when he was elected in Rustaq. Nasir's energy and perseverance is believed to have earned him the election.[40] Imam Nasir and his successor succeeded in the 1650s in expelling the Portuguese from their coastal domains in Oman.[23] The Omanis over time established a maritime empire that pursued the Portuguese and expelled them from all their possessions in East Africa, which were then incorporated into the Omani domains. To capture Zanzibar Saif bin Sultan, the Imam of Oman, pressed down the Swahili Coast. A major obstacle to his progress was Fort Jesus, housing the garrison of a Portuguese settlement at Mombasa. After a two-year siege, the fort fell to Imam Saif bin Sultan in 1698.Saif bin Sultan occupied Bahrain in 1700. The rivalry within the house of Yaruba over power after the death of Imam Sultan in 1718 weakened the dynasty. With the power of the Yaruba Dynasty dwindling, Imam Saif bin Sultan II eventually asked for help against his rivals from Nader Shah of Persia. A Persian force arrived in March 1737 to aid Saif. From their base at Julfar, the Persian forces eventually rebelled against the Yaruba in 1743. The Persian empire then tried to take possession of the coast of Oman until 1747.[23][41]

    18th and 19th centuries
     
    The Sultan's Palace in Zanzibar, which was once Oman's capital and residence of its sultans

    After the Omanis expelled the Persians, Ahmed bin Sa'id Albusaidi in 1749 became the elected Imam of Oman, with Rustaq serving as the capital. Since the revival of the Imamate with the Yaruba dynasty, the Omanis continued with the elective system but, provided that the person is deemed qualified, gave preference to a member of the ruling family.[42] Following Imam Ahmed's death in 1783, his son, Said bin Ahmed became the elected Imam. His son, Seyyid Hamed bin Said, overthrew the representative of his father the Imam in Muscat and obtained the possession of Muscat fortress. Hamed ruled as "Seyyid". Afterwards, Seyyid Sultan bin Ahmed, the uncle of Seyyid Hamed, took over power. Seyyid Said bin Sultan succeeded Sultan bin Ahmed.[43][44] During the entire 19th century, in addition to Imam Said bin Ahmed who retained the title until he died in 1803, Azzan bin Qais was the only elected Imam of Oman. His rule started in 1868. However, the British refused to accept Imam Azzan as a ruler, as he was viewed as inimical to their interests. This view played an instrumental role in supporting the deposition of Imam Azzan in 1871 by his cousin, Sayyid Turki, a son of the late Sayyid Said bin Sultan, and brother of Sultan Barghash of Zanzibar, who Britain deemed to be more acceptable.[45]

    Oman's Imam Sultan, defeated ruler of Muscat, was granted sovereignty over Gwadar, an area of modern-day Pakistan. Gwadar was a part of Oman from 1783 to 1958. This coastal city is located in the Makran region of what is now the far southwestern corner of Pakistan, near the present-day border of Iran, at the mouth of the Gulf of Oman.[note 1][46] After regaining control of Muscat, this sovereignty was continued via an appointed wali ("governor"). Currently, Gwadar's residents speak Urdu and Balochi with many also knowledgeable in Arabic.

    British de facto colonisation

    The British empire was keen to dominate southeast Arabia to stifle the growing power of other European states and to curb the Omani maritime power that grew during the 17th century.[47][30] The British empire over time, starting from the late 18th century, began to establish a series of treaties with the sultans with the objective of advancing British political and economic interest in Muscat, while granting the sultans military protection.[30][47] In 1798, the first treaty between the British East India Company and the Albusaidi dynasty was signed by Sayyid Sultan bin Ahmed. The treaty aimed to block commercial competition of the French and the Dutch as well as obtain a concession to build a British factory at Bandar Abbas.[48][23][49] A second treaty was signed in 1800, which stipulated that a British representative shall reside at the port of Muscat and manage all external affairs with other states.[49] As the Omani Empire weakened, the British influence over Muscat grew throughout the nineteenth century.[39]

     
    A British naval squadron in Muscat[50]

    In 1854, a deed of cession of the Omani Kuria Muria islands to Britain was signed by the sultan of Muscat and the British government.[51] The British government achieved predominating control over Muscat, which, for the most part, impeded competition from other nations.[52] Between 1862 and 1892, the Political Residents, Lewis Pelly and Edward Ross, played an instrumental role in securing British supremacy over the Persian Gulf and Muscat by a system of indirect governance.[45] By the end of the 19th century, and with the loss of its African dominions and its revenues, British influence increased to the point that the sultans became heavily dependent on British loans and signed declarations to consult the British government on all important matters.[47][53][54][55] The Sultanate thus came de facto under the British sphere.[54][56]

    Zanzibar was a valuable property as the main slave market of the Swahili Coast as well as being a major producer of cloves, and became an increasingly important part of the Omani empire, a fact reflected by the decision of the Sayyid Sa'id bin Sultan, to make it the capital of the empire in 1837. Sa'id built impressive palaces and gardens in Zanzibar. Rivalry between his two sons was resolved, with the help of forceful British diplomacy, when one of them, Majid, succeeded to Zanzibar and to the Omani domains on the Swahili Coast. The other son, Thuwaini, inherited Oman and the Asian domains. Zanzibar's influences in the Comoros archipelago in the Indian Ocean indirectly introduced Omani customs to the Comorian culture. These influences include clothing traditions and wedding ceremonies.[57] In 1856, under British arbitration, Zanzibar and Muscat became two different sultanates.[58]

    Treaty of Seeb
     
    The split between the interior region (orange) and the coastal region (red) of Oman and Muscat

    The Al Hajar Mountains, of which the Jebel Akhdar is a part, separate the country into two distinct regions: the interior, and the coastal area dominated by the capital, Muscat.[citation needed] The British imperial development over Muscat and Oman during the 19th century led to the renewed revival of the cause of the Imamate in the interior of Oman, which has appeared in cycles for more than 1,200 years in Oman.[30] The British Political Agent, who resided in Muscat, owed the alienation of the interior of Oman to the vast influence of the British government over Muscat, which he described as being completely self-interested and without any regard to the social and political conditions of the locals.[59] In 1913, Imam Salim Alkharusi instigated an anti-Muscat rebellion that lasted until 1920 when the Sultanate established peace with the Imamate by signing the Treaty of Seeb. The treaty was brokered by Britain, which had no economic interest in the interior of Oman during that point of time. The treaty granted autonomous rule to the Imamate in the interior of Oman and recognized the sovereignty of the coast of Oman, the Sultanate of Muscat.[47][60][61][62] In 1920, Imam Salim Alkharusi died and Muhammad Alkhalili was elected.[23]

    On 10 January 1923, an agreement between the Sultanate and the British government was signed in which the Sultanate had to consult with the British political agent residing in Muscat and obtain the approval of the High Government of India to extract oil in the Sultanate.[63] On 31 July 1928, the Red Line Agreement was signed between Anglo-Persian Company (later renamed British Petroleum), Royal Dutch/Shell, Compagnie Française des Pétroles (later renamed Total), Near East Development Corporation (later renamed ExxonMobil) and Calouste Gulbenkian (an Armenian businessman) to collectively produce oil in the post-Ottoman Empire region, which included the Arabian peninsula, with each of the four major companies holding 23.75 percent of the shares while Calouste Gulbenkian held the remaining 5 percent shares. The agreement stipulated that none of the signatories was allowed to pursue the establishment of oil concessions within the agreed on area without including all other stakeholders. In 1929, the members of the agreement established Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC).[64] On 13 November 1931, Sultan Taimur bin Faisal abdicated.[65]

    Reign of Sultan Said (1932–1970)
     
    Sultan Said bin Taimur ruled from 1932 to 1970.

    Said bin Taimur became the sultan of Muscat officially on 10 February 1932. The rule of sultan Said bin Taimur, a very complex character, was backed by the British government, and has been characterised as being feudal, reactionary and isolationist.[62][30][54][66] The British government maintained vast administrative control over the Sultanate as the defence secretary and chief of intelligence, chief adviser to the sultan and all ministers except for one were British.[54][67] In 1937, an agreement between the sultan and Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC), a consortium of oil companies that was 23.75% British owned, was signed to grant oil concessions to IPC. After failing to discover oil in the Sultanate, IPC was intensely interested in some promising geological formations near Fahud, an area located within the Imamate. IPC offered financial support to the sultan to raise an armed force against any potential resistance by the Imamate.[68][69]

    In 1955, the exclave coastal Makran strip acceded to Pakistan and was made a district of its Balochistan province, while Gwadar remained in Oman. On 8 September 1958, Pakistan purchased the Gwadar enclave from Oman for US$3 million.[note 2][70] Gwadar then became a tehsil in the Makran district.

    Jebel Akhdar War
     
    Nizwa Fort attacked by British Royal Air Force strike aircraft during Jebel Akhdar War

    Sultan Said bin Taimur expressed his interest in occupying the Imamate right after the death of Imam Alkhalili, thus taking advantage of any potential instability that might occur within the Imamate when elections were due, to the British government.[71] The British political agent in Muscat believed that the only method of gaining access to the oil reserves in the interior was by assisting the sultan in taking over the Imamate.[72] In 1946, the British government offered arms and ammunition, auxiliary supplies and officers to prepare the sultan to attack the interior of Oman.[73] In May 1954, Imam Alkhalili died and Ghalib Alhinai was elected Imam.[74] Relations between the Sultan Said bin Taimur, and Imam Ghalib Alhinai frayed over their dispute about oil concessions. Under the terms of the 1920 treaty of Seeb, the Sultan, backed by the British government, claimed all dealings with the oil company as his prerogative. The Imam, on the other hand, claimed that since the oil was in the Imamate territory, anything concerning it was an internal matter.[citation needed]

    In December 1955, Sultan Said bin Taimur sent troops of the Muscat and Oman Field Force to occupy the main centres in Oman, including Nizwa, the capital of the Imamate of Oman, and Ibri.[60][75] The Omanis in the interior led by Imam Ghalib Alhinai, Talib Alhinai, the brother of the Imam and the Wali (governor) of Rustaq, and Suleiman bin Hamyar, who was the Wali (governor) of Jebel Akhdar, defended the Imamate in the Jebel Akhdar War against British-backed attacks by the Sultanate. In July 1957, the Sultan's forces were withdrawing, but they were repeatedly ambushed, sustaining heavy casualties.[60] Sultan Said, however, with the intervention of British infantry (two companies of the Cameronians), armoured car detachments from the British Army and RAF aircraft, was able to suppress the rebellion.[76] The Imamate's forces retreated to the inaccessible Jebel Akhdar.[76][68]

    Colonel David Smiley, who had been seconded to organise the Sultan's Armed Forces, managed to isolate the mountain in autumn 1958 and found a route to the plateau from Wadi Bani Kharus.[77] On 4 August 1957, the British Foreign Secretary gave the approval to carry out air strikes without prior warning to the locals residing in the interior of Oman.[66] Between July and December 1958, the British RAF made 1,635 raids, dropping 1,094 tons and firing 900 rockets at the interior of Oman targeting insurgents, mountain top villages, water channels and crops.[54][66] On 27 January 1959, the Sultanate's forces occupied the mountain in a surprise operation.[77] Imam Ghalib, his brother Talib and Sulaiman managed to escape to Saudi Arabia, where the Imamate's cause was promoted until the 1970s.[77] The exiled partisans of the now abolished Imamate of Oman presented the case of Oman to the Arab League and the United Nations.[78][79] On 11 December 1963, the UN General Assembly decided to establish an Ad-Hoc Committee on Oman to study the 'Question of Oman' and report back to the General Assembly.[80] The UN General Assembly adopted the 'Question of Oman' resolution in 1965, 1966 and again in 1967 that called upon the British government to cease all repressive action against the locals, end British control over Oman and reaffirmed the inalienable right of the Omani people to self-determination and independence.[81][82][56][83][84][85]

    Dhofar Rebellion

    Oil reserves in Dhofar were discovered in 1964 and extraction began in 1967. In the Dhofar Rebellion, which began in 1965, pro-Soviet forces were pitted against government troops. As the rebellion threatened the Sultan's control of Dhofar, Sultan Said bin Taimur was deposed in a bloodless coup (1970) by his son Qaboos bin Said, who expanded the Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces, modernised the state's administration and introduced social reforms. The uprising was finally put down in 1975 with the help of forces from Iran, Jordan, Pakistan and the British Royal Air Force, army and Special Air Service.

    Reign of Sultan Qaboos (1970–2020)
     
    Sultan Qaboos bin Said, whose reign saw a rise in living standards and development, the abolition of slavery, the end of the Dhofar Rebellion, and the promulgation of Oman's constitution

    After deposing his father in 1970, Sultan Qaboos opened up the country, embarked on economic reforms, and followed a policy of modernisation marked by increased spending on health, education and welfare.[86] Slavery, once a cornerstone of the country's trade and development, was outlawed in 1970.[57]

    In 1981, Oman became a founding member of the six-nation Gulf Cooperation Council. Political reforms were eventually introduced. Historically, a limited franchise of voters for the State Consultative Council, later Majlis Al-Shura, had been chosen from among tribal notables, intellectuals, degree holders, and businessmen. In 1997, a royal decree was issued granting women the right to vote, and stand for election to the Majlis al-Shura, the Consultative Assembly of Oman. Two women were duly elected to the body.

    In 2002, voting rights were extended to all citizens over the age of 21, and the first elections to the Consultative Assembly under the new rules were held in 2003. In 2004, the Sultan appointed Oman's first female minister with portfolio, Sheikha Aisha bint Khalfan bin Jameel al-Sayabiyah. She was appointed to the post of National Authority for Industrial Craftsmanship, an office that attempts to preserve and promote Oman's traditional crafts and stimulate industry.[87] Despite these changes, there was little change to the actual political makeup of the government. The Sultan continued to rule by decree. Nearly 100 suspected Islamists were arrested in 2005 and 31 people were convicted of trying to overthrow the government. They were ultimately pardoned in June of the same year.[88]

    Inspired by the Arab Spring uprisings that were taking place throughout the region, protests occurred in Oman during the early months of 2011. While they did not call for the ousting of the regime, demonstrators demanded political reforms, improved living conditions and the creation of more jobs. They were dispersed by riot police in February 2011. Sultan Qaboos reacted by promising jobs and benefits. In October 2011, elections were held to the Consultative Assembly, to which Sultan Qaboos promised greater powers. The following year, the government began a crackdown on internet criticism. In September 2012, trials began of 'activists' accused of posting "abusive and provocative" criticism of the government online. Six were given jail terms of 12–18 months and fines of around $2,500 each.[89]

    Qaboos, the Arab world's longest-serving ruler, died on 10 January 2020, and the government declared 40 days of national mourning. He was buried the next day.[90]

    Reign of Sultan Haitham (2020–present)

    On 11 January 2020, Qaboos was succeeded by his first cousin Sultan Haitham bin Tariq.[91] Sultan Qaboos did not have any children.[92]

    ^ Rose, J. I.; Usik, V. I.; Marks, A. E.; Hilbert, Y. H.; Galletti, C. S.; Parton, A.; Geiling, J. M.; Černý, V.; Morley, M. W.; Roberts, R. G. (2011). "The Nubian Complex of Dhofar, Oman: An African Middle Stone Age Industry in Southern Arabia". PLOS ONE. 6 (11): e28239. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...628239R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0028239. PMC 3227647. PMID 22140561. ^ Jeffrey I. Rose et al., South Punjab, Oman: An African Middle Stone Age Industry in Southern Arabia, Plos 30 November 2011 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0028239 ^ Thornton, Christopher; Cable, Charlotte; Possehl, Gregory (2016). The Bronze Age Towers at Bat, Sultanate of Oman…2007–12. University of Pennsylvania Museum. ISBN 9781934536063. ^ a b Salîl-ibn-Razîk. British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân. British National Archive. Page 39. QDL. ^ a b c d e Salîl-ibn-Razîk. British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân (54/612). History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân. British National Archive. Page 54. QDL. ^ Wilkinson, John (1977). Water and Tribal Settlement in South East Arabia – A Study of the Aflaj of Oman. Clarendon Press. pp. 76, 85, 122, 126–130, 132. ISBN 0198232179. ^ Yule, Paul (2014). Cross-roads Early and Late Iron Age South-Eastern Arabia. Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 15–18. ISBN 9783447101271. ^ "Digging in the Land of Magan – Archaeology Magazine Archive". Archive.archaeology.org. Retrieved 14 January 2014. ^ "Oman: The Lost Land". Saudi Aramco World. March 1983. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 14 January 2014. ^ "Oman: A History". Saudi Aramco World. March 1983. Retrieved 14 January 2014. ^ Feuerstein, Georg; Kak, Subhash & Frawley, David (2005). The Search of the Cradle of Civilization: New Light on Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidass Publisher. p. 119. 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History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 166. QDL. ^ Hans kruse. Notes and Memoranda of Oman Hans kruse. Disturbances in Oman: Notes and Memoranda of Oman. Sage Journals. 1 October 1965. ^ a b Salîl-ibn-Razîk. British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân (46/612). History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 46. QDL. ^ Salîl-ibn-Razîk. British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân by Salîl-ibn-Razîk, from A.D. 661–1856 (168/612) History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 168. QDL. ^ a b c d e J. C. Wilkinson. The Oman Question: The Background to the Political Geography of South-East Arabia. The Oman Question: The Background to the Political Geography of South-East Arabia. Pages 361–371. The Geographical Journal. JSTOR. 1971. ^ a b Uzi Rabi. Emergence of States in a Tribal Society: Oman Under Sa'Id Bin Taymur. Emergence of States in a Tribal Society: Oman Under Sa'Id Bin Taymur. ^ Rabi, Uzi (11 March 2011). Emergence of States in a Tribal Society: Oman Under Sa'Id Bin Taymur, 1932–1970. Apollo Books. ISBN 9781845194734 – via Google Books. ^ Nabhan, Gary Paul (11 March 2008). Arab/American: Landscape, Culture, and Cuisine in Two Great Deserts. University of Arizona Press. ISBN 9780816526581 – via Google Books. ^ Salîl-ibn-Razîk. British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân (202/612). History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân. British National Archive. Page 202. QDL. ^ Gavin Thomas. The Rough Guide to Oman . The Rough Guide to Oman. ^ Holt, Peter Malcolm; Lambton, Ann K. S. and Lewis, Bernard (1977) The Cambridge history of Islam, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521291364. ^ Willem Floor, "Dutch Relations with the Persian Gulf", in Lawrence G. Potter (ed.), The Persian Gulf in History (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), p. 240. ^ Bocarro, António. Livro das plantas de todas as fortalezas, cidades e povoaçoens do Estado da India Oriental. ^ a b Oman Country Profile. Oman Country Profile. British Library Partnership. Qatar Digital Library. 2014. ^ "'History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân by Salîl-ibn-Razîk, from A.D. 661–1856; translated from the original Arabic, and edited with notes, appendices, and an introduction, continuing the history down to 1870, by George Percy Badger, F.R.G.S., late chaplain in the Presidency of Bombay.' [23] (56/612)". Qatar Digital Library. 22 October 2014. ^ Stefan Siebert. The Rough Guide to Oman. The Rough Guide to Oman. 2011. ^ Salîl-ibn-Razîk. History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân by Salîl-ibn-Razîk, from A.D. 661–1856 (83/612) British National Archive. History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 83. QDL. ^ Salîl-ibn-Razîk. History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân by Salîl-ibn-Razîk, from A.D. 661–1856 (86/612). History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 86. QDL. ^ Salîl-ibn-Razîk. History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân by Salîl-ibn-Razîk, from A.D. 661–1856 (92/612) British National Archive. History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 92. QDL. ^ a b Robert Geran Landen. Oman Since 1856: Disruptive Modernization in a Traditional Arab Society. Oman Since 1856: Disruptive Modernization in a Traditional Arab Society. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Pages 581–583. JSTOR. 1970. Vol. 90, No. 4. ^ Cowasjee, Ardeshir (11 September 2005). "DAWN – Cowasjee Corner; September 11, 2005". DAWN Group of Newspapers. Archived from the original on 9 June 2010. Retrieved 27 July 2010. ^ a b c d Dr Francis Owtram (11 December 2014). "A Close Relationship: Britain and Oman Since 1750". QDL. 2014. ^ Joseph A. Kechichian. Oman and the World: The Emergence of an Independent Foreign Policy Oman and the World: the Emergence of an Independent Foreign Policy. RAND. 1995. ^ a b Salîl-ibn-Razîk. History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân by Salîl-ibn-Razîk, from A.D. 661–1856 (89/612) History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 89. QDL. ^ Muscat and the Monsoon. British National Archive: Muscat and the Monsoon British National Archive. QDL. ^ A Collection of Treaties and Engagements. British National Archives: A Collection of Treaties and Engagements relating to the Persian Gulf Shaikhdoms and the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman in force up to the End of 1953' [26v] (54/92). British National Archives. Page 54. QDL. ^ Historical Summary of Events. British National Archive: Historical Summary of Events 189/222 British National Archive. Page 189. QDL. ^ Muscat and Oman Internal Affairs History. British National Archive: Muscat and Oman Internal Affairs History British National Archive. Page 191. QDL. ^ a b c d e Ian Cobain. The Guardian: Britain's secret wars Britain's Secret Wars. The Guardian. 8 September 2016. ^ The Financial Troubles of Said bin Taimur.British National Archive: The Financial Troubles of Said bin Taimur British National Archive. QDL. ^ a b 2302 Question of Oman. United Nations: 2302 Question of Oman. United Nations. 12 December 1967. ^ a b Benjamin Plackett (30 March 2017). "Omani Music Masks A Slave Trading Past". Al-Fanar Media. Retrieved 17 July 2017. ^ 'E. C. B. MacLaurin. Oman and the Trucial Coast. Oman and the Trucial Coast. Pages 65–76. The Australian Quarterly. JSTOR. 1958. ^ Muscat State Affairs. British National Archive: File 8/67 Muscat State Affairs: Muscat– Oman Treaty British National Archive. File 8/67. Page 20. QDL. ^ a b c "Jebel Akhdar". Britain's Small Wars. Archived from the original on 17 September 2013. Retrieved 10 April 2012. ^ Muscat Rising. British National Archive: Muscat Rising, from April 1917 to January 1918 & resumed from April 1920 to Oct 1920 British National Archive. QDL. ^ a b Oman profile – Timeline. "BBC Middle East: Oman profile – Timeline (25 April 2018)". BBC News. 25 April 2018. 25 April 2018. ^ Undertaking by Sultan Taimur Regarding Oil. Undertaking by Sultan Taimur Regarding Oil. British National Archives. Page 60. QDL. ^ The 1928 Red Line Agreement. United States Office of the Historian: The 1928 Red Line Agreement United States Office of the Historian. ^ Muscat Rising. British National Archive: Muscat Rising, from April 1917 to January 1918 & resumed from April 1920 to Oct 1920 British National Archive. Page 190. QDL. ^ a b c Mark Curtis. British National Archives. Oman 1957-9. British National Archives. 2017. ^ Fred Halliday. Arabia by Fred Halliday Arabia. The Arabian Peninsula. Saqi Books. University of California. published 1974. ^ a b Peterson, J. E. (2 January 2013). Oman's Insurgencies: The Sultanate's Struggle for Supremacy. Saqi. ISBN 9780863567025. Retrieved 29 April 2018 – via Google Books. ^ Historical Summary of Events in the Persian Gulf. "British National Archive: Historical Summary of Events in the Persian Gulf (208/222)". QDL. 30 May 2014. Archived from the original on 23 July 2019. British National Archive. Page 208. ^ Nicolin, Beatrice (25 May 1998). "International trade networks: The Omani Enclave of Gwadar – Conference on German and International Research on Oman, Bonn 1998: abstracts". Bonn: Conference on German and International Research on Oman. Archived from the original on 4 January 2020. Retrieved 27 July 2010. ^ Muscat State Affairs. A.C.Gallowey: File 8/62 Muscat State Affairs: Principal Shaikhs and Tribes of Oman' [35r] (69/296). Principal Shaikhs and Tribes of Oman. British National Archive. Page 69. QDL. ^ Muscat State Affairs. British Consulate Muscat: File 8/62 Muscat State Affairs: Principal Shaikhs and Tribes of Oman. British National Archive. File 8/62. Page 153. 25 May 1946. QDL. ^ Muscat State Affairs. The Foreign Office London: File 8/62 Muscat State Affairs: Principal Shaikhs and Tribes of Oman [146r] (291/296). British National Archive. Page 291. QDL. ^ Peterson, John E. (1978). Oman in the Twentieth Century: Political Foundations of an Emerging State. Croom Helm. p. 182. ISBN 9780856646294. ^ Liquid Oman: oil, water, and causality in Southern Arabia. Liquid Oman: oil, water, and causality in Southern Arabia Royal Anthropological Institute. P. 147–162. 2016. City University of New York. ^ a b Ryan, Mike (2003). Secret Operations of the Sas. Zenith Imprint. pp. 68–70. ISBN 9780760314142. ^ a b c Owtram, Francis (2004). A Modern History of Oman: Formation of the State since 1920. I.B.Tauris. p. 106. ISBN 9781860646171. ^ The Last Imam of Oman. CNN Arabic: وفاة آخر أئمة عُمان في منفاه السياسي بالسعودية CNN Arabic News. 1 December 2009. Muscat, Oman. ^ 10 Arab States Ask U.N. Debate On Oman. The New York Times. 01 October 1960. The New York Times. ^ Question of Oman. 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    Stay safe

    Homosexuality is a crime in Oman. LGBT tourists should be self-aware.

    Driving in Muscat can sometimes be a problem, although this is due more to congestion than bad driving on the part of the locals. Outside of the major cities, a common driving risk is falling asleep at the wheel due to the long stretches of featureless desert. Driving in Oman calls for attention to the unexpected. It has 85.3 road fatalities per 100,000 motor vehicles, which is more than double the UAE and much higher than most European countries.

    Omani drivers outside of the cities tend to drive very fast and pass with impunity. Driving at night is especially hazardous as many drivers fail to turn their headlights on, or people crossing the road by feet for example in road from Sohar to Muscat. Camels will walk into the road even if they see cars approaching, and collisions are often fatal for both camel and driver.

    See the above section on driving in wadis for off-road safety.

    Female travellers should be careful to dress modestly, as not to offend local customs.

    Visiting gambling and adult sites is also a crime in Oman. Internet censorship in Oman is very serious. So you need to be careful to stay safe on-line.

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