Planning  Early Brooklyn Bridge tower plan, 1867

Proposals for a bridge between the then-separate cities of Brooklyn and New York had been suggested as early as 1800.[1][2] At the time, the only travel between the two cities was by a number of ferry lines.[1][3] Engineers presented various designs, such as chain or link bridges, though these were never built because of the difficulties of constructing a high enough fixed-span bridge across the extremely busy East River.[1][2] There were also proposals for tunnels under the East River, but these were considered prohibitively expensive.[4] German immigrant engineer John Augustus Roebling proposed building a suspension bridge over the East River in 1857. He had previously designed and constructed shorter suspension bridges, such as Roebling's Delaware Aqueduct in Lackawaxen, Pennsylvania, and the Niagara Suspension Bridge. In 1867, Roebling erected what became the John A. Roebling Suspension Bridge over the Ohio River between Cincinnati, Ohio, and Covington, Kentucky.[5]

In February 1867, the New York State Senate passed a bill that allowed the construction of a suspension bridge from Brooklyn to Manhattan.[6] Two months later, the New York and Brooklyn Bridge Company was incorporated with a board of directors (later converted to a board of trustees).[1][7][8] There were twenty trustees in total: eight each appointed by the mayors of New York and Brooklyn, as well as the mayors of each city and the auditor and comptroller of Brooklyn.[9] The company was tasked with constructing what was then known as the New York and Brooklyn Bridge.[1][7][8] Alternatively, the span was just referred to as the "Brooklyn Bridge", a name originating in a January 25, 1867, letter to the editor sent to the Brooklyn Daily Eagle.[10] The act of incorporation, which became law on April 16, 1867, authorized the cities of New York (now Manhattan) and Brooklyn to subscribe to $5 million in capital stock, which would fund the bridge's construction.[4]

 Artists' conception, by Currier and Ives, of the bridge while construction was underway, 1872

Roebling was subsequently named the chief engineer of the work and, by September 1867, had presented a master plan.[1][11][12] According to the plan, the bridge would be longer and taller than any suspension bridge previously built.[13] It would incorporate roadways and elevated rail tracks, whose tolls and fares would provide the means to pay for the bridge's construction. It would also include a raised promenade that served as a leisurely pathway.[14] The proposal received much acclaim in both cities, and residents predicted that the New York and Brooklyn Bridge's opening would have as much of an impact as the Suez Canal, the first transatlantic telegraph cable or the first transcontinental railroad. By early 1869, however, some individuals started to criticize the project, saying either that the bridge was too expensive, or that the construction process was too difficult.[15]

To allay concerns about the design of the New York and Brooklyn Bridge, Roebling set up a "Bridge Party" in March 1869, where he invited engineers and members of U.S. Congress to see his other spans.[16] Following the bridge party in April, Roebling and several engineers conducted final surveys. During the process, it was determined that the main span would have to be raised from 130 to 135 feet (40 to 41 m) above MHW, requiring several changes to the overall design.[17] In June 1869, while conducting these surveys, Roebling sustained a crush injury to his foot when a ferry pinned it against a piling.[18][19] After amputation of his crushed toes, he developed a tetanus infection that left him incapacitated and resulted in his death the following month. Washington Roebling, John Roebling's 32-year-old son, was then hired to fill his father's role.[20][21] Tammany Hall leader William M. Tweed also became involved in the bridge's construction because, as a major landowner in New York City, he had an interest in the project's completion.[22] The New York and Brooklyn Bridge Company—later known simply as the New York Bridge Company[23]—was actually overseen by Tammany Hall, and it approved Roebling's plans and designated him as chief engineer of the project.[24]

Construction Caissons  Diagram of the caisson

Construction of the Brooklyn Bridge began on January 2, 1870.[9] The first work entailed the construction of two caissons, upon which the suspension towers would be built.[25][26] The Brooklyn side's caisson was built at the Webb & Bell shipyard in Greenpoint, Brooklyn, and was launched into the river on March 19, 1870.[25][26] Compressed air was pumped into the caisson, and workers entered the space to dig the sediment until it sank to the bedrock. As one sixteen-year-old from Ireland, Frank Harris, described the fearful experience:[27]

The six of us were working naked to the waist in the small iron chamber with the temperature of about 80 degrees Fahrenheit: In five minutes the sweat was pouring from us, and all the while we were standing in icy water that was only kept from rising by the terrific pressure. No wonder the headaches were blinding.[27]

Once the caisson had reached the desired depth, it was to be filled in with vertical brick piers and concrete.[28][29] However, due to the unexpectedly high concentration of large boulders atop the riverbed, the Brooklyn caisson took several months to sink to the desired depth.[29][26] Furthermore, in December 1870, its timber roof caught fire, delaying construction further.[30][31] The "Great Blowout", as the fire was called, delayed construction for several months, since the holes in the caisson had to be repaired.[32] On March 6, 1871, the repairs were finished, and the caisson had reached its final depth of 44.5 feet (13.6 m); it was filled with concrete five days later.[32][26] Overall, about 264 individuals were estimated to have worked in the caisson every day, but because of high worker turnover, the final total was thought to be about 2,500 men in total.[33] In spite of this, only a few workers were paralyzed. At its final depth, the caisson's air pressure was 21 pounds per square inch (140 kPa).[34]

The Manhattan side's caisson was the next structure to be built. To ensure that it would not catch fire like its counterpart had, the Manhattan caisson was lined with fireproof plate iron.[35] It was launched from Webb & Bell's shipyard on May 11, 1871,[36][37] and maneuvered into place that September.[38][25] Due to the extreme underwater air pressure inside the much deeper Manhattan caisson, many workers became sick with "the bends"—decompression sickness—during this work,[27] despite the incorporation of airlocks (which were believed to help with decompression sickness at the time).[39][40] This condition was unknown at the time and was first called "caisson disease" by the project physician, Andrew Smith.[41][42] Between January 25 and May 31, 1872, Smith treated 110 cases of decompression sickness, while three workers died from the disease.[37] When iron probes underneath the Manhattan caisson found the bedrock to be even deeper than expected, Washington Roebling halted construction due to the increased risk of decompression sickness.[37][43] After the Manhattan caisson reached a depth of 78.5 feet (23.9 m) with an air pressure of 35 pounds per square inch (240 kPa),[34] Washington deemed the sandy subsoil overlying the bedrock 30 feet (9.1 m) beneath to be sufficiently firm, and subsequently infilled the caisson with concrete in July 1872.[37][44]

Washington Roebling himself suffered a paralyzing injury as a result of caisson disease shortly after ground was broken for the Brooklyn tower foundation.[2][45] His debilitating condition left him unable to supervise the construction in person, so he designed the caissons and other equipment from his apartment, directing "the completion of the bridge through a telescope from his bedroom."[27] His wife, Emily Warren Roebling, not only provided written communications between her husband and the engineers on site,[46] but also understood mathematics, calculations of catenary curves, strengths of materials, bridge specifications, and the intricacies of cable construction. She spent the next 11 years helping supervise the bridge's construction,[34][47] taking over much of the chief engineer's duties, including day-to-day supervision and project management.[48]

Towers  View of Manhattan in 1876, showing the Brooklyn Bridge under construction

After the caissons were completed, piers were constructed on top of each of them upon which masonry towers would be built. The towers' construction was a complex process that took four years. Since the masonry blocks were heavy, the builders transported them to the base of the towers using a pulley system with a continuous 1.5-inch (3.8 cm)-diameter steel wire rope, operated by steam engines at ground level. The blocks were then carried up on a timber track alongside each tower and maneuvered into the proper position using a derrick atop the towers.[37][49] The blocks sometimes vibrated the ropes because of their weight, but only once did a block fall.[49]

Construction on the suspension towers started in mid-1872, and by the time work was halted for the winter in late 1872, parts of each tower had already been built.[46] By mid-1873, there was substantial progress on the towers' construction. The Brooklyn side's tower had reached a height of 164 feet (50 m) above mean high water, while the tower on the Manhattan side had reached 88 feet (27 m) above MHW.[50][51] The arches of the Brooklyn tower were completed by August 1874.[52] The tower was substantially finished by December 1874 with the erection of saddle plates for the main cables at the top of the tower. However, the ornamentation on the Brooklyn tower could not be completed until the Manhattan tower was finished.[53] The last stone on the Brooklyn tower was raised in June 1875 and the Manhattan tower was completed in July 1876.[54] The saddle plates atop both towers were also raised in July 1876.[55] The work was dangerous: by 1876, three workers had died having fallen from the towers, while nine other workers were killed in other accidents.[56]

 George Bradford Brainerd, From Bridge Tower, c. 1872, Brooklyn Museum

In 1875, while the towers were being constructed, the project had depleted its original $5 million budget. Two bridge commissioners, one each from Brooklyn and Manhattan, petitioned New York state lawmakers to allot another $8 million for construction. Ultimately, the legislators passed a law authorizing the allotment with the condition that the cities would buy the stock of Brooklyn Bridge's private stockholders.[57]

Work proceeded concurrently on the anchorages on each side.[58] The Brooklyn anchorage broke ground in January 1873[59][60] and was subsequently substantially completed in August 1875.[61][60] The Manhattan anchorage was built in less time, having started in May 1875, it was mostly completed in July 1876.[62][63] The anchorages could not be fully completed until the main cables were spun, at which point another 6 feet (1.8 m) would be added to the height of each 80-foot (24 m) anchorage.[64]

Cables

The first temporary wire was stretched between the towers on August 15, 1876,[55][65][66] using chrome steel provided by the Chrome Steel Company of Brooklyn.[55][66] The wire was then stretched back across the river, and the two ends were spliced to form a traveler, a lengthy loop of wire connecting the towers, which was driven by a 30 horsepower (22 kW) steam hoisting engine at ground level.[67] The wire was one of two that were used to create a temporary footbridge for workers while cable spinning was ongoing.[68] The next step was to send an engineer across the completed traveler wire in a boatswain's chair slung from the wire, to ensure it was safe enough. The bridge's master mechanic, E.F. Farrington, was selected for this task, and an estimated crowd of 10,000 people on both shores watched him cross.[69][70] A second traveler wire was then stretched across the span, a task that was completed by August 30.[71][68] The temporary footbridge, located some 60 feet (18 m) above the elevation of the future deck, was completed in February 1877.[72]

By December 1876, a steel contract for the permanent cables still had not been awarded.[73] There was disagreement over whether the bridge's cables should use the as-yet-untested Bessemer steel or the well-proven crucible steel.[74][75] Until a permanent contract was awarded, the builders ordered 30 short tons (27 long tons) of wire in the interim, 10 tons each from three companies, including Washington Roebling's own steel mill in Brooklyn.[76] In the end, it was decided to use number 8 Birmingham gauge (approximately 4 mm or 0.165 inches in diameter) crucible steel, and a request for bids was distributed, to which eight companies responded.[73] In January 1877, a contract for crucible steel was awarded to J. Lloyd Haigh,[74][77][78] who was associated with bridge trustee Abram Hewitt, whom Roebling distrusted.[79][80]

The spinning of the wires required the manufacture of large coils of it which were galvanized but not oiled when they left the factory. The coils were delivered to a yard near the Brooklyn anchorage. There they were dipped in linseed oil, hoisted to the top of the anchorage, dried out and spliced into a single wire, and finally coated with red zinc for further galvanizing.[81][82] There were thirty-two drums at the anchorage yard, eight for each of the four main cables. Each drum had a capacity of 60,000 feet (18,000 m) of wire.[83] The first experimental wire for the main cables was stretched between the towers on May 29, 1877, and spinning began two weeks later.[81] All four main cables were being strung by that July. During that time, the temporary footbridge was unofficially opened to members of the public, who could receive a visitor's pass; by August 1877 several thousand visitors from around the world had used the footbridge.[84] The visitor passes ceased that September after a visitor had an epileptic seizure and nearly fell off.[84][85]

As the wires were being spun, work also commenced on the demolition of buildings on either side of the river for the Brooklyn Bridge's approaches; this work was mostly complete by September 1877.[64] The following month, initial contracts were awarded for the suspender wires, which would hang down from the main cables and support the deck.[85][86] By May 1878, the main cables were more than two-thirds complete.[87] However, the following month, one of the wires slipped, killing two people and injuring three others.[88][89][90] In 1877, Hewitt wrote a letter urging against the use of Bessemer steel in the bridge's construction.[91][92] Bids had been submitted for both crucible steel and Bessemer steel; John A. Roebling's Sons submitted the lowest bid for Bessemer steel,[93] but at Hewitt's direction, the contract was awarded to Haigh.[94][95]

A subsequent investigation discovered that Haigh had substituted inferior quality wire in the cables. Of eighty rings of wire that were tested, only five met standards, and it was estimated that Haigh had earned $300,000 from the deception.[95][96] At this point, it was too late to replace the cables that had already been constructed. Roebling determined that the poorer wire would leave the bridge only four times as strong as necessary, rather than six to eight times as strong. The inferior-quality wire was allowed to remain and 150 extra wires were added to each cable.[74][95][96] To avoid public controversy, Haigh was not fired, but instead was required to personally pay for higher-quality wire.[96][a] The contract for the remaining wire was awarded to the John A. Roebling's Sons, and by October 5, 1878, the last of the main cables' wires went over the river.[97]

Nearing completion

After the suspender wires had been placed, workers began erecting steel crossbeams to support the roadway as part of the bridge's overall superstructure.[74] Construction on the bridge's superstructure started in March 1879,[98] but, as with the cables, the trustees initially disagreed on whether the steel superstructure should be made of Bessemer or crucible steel.[99] That July, the trustees decided to award a contract for 500 short tons (450 long tons) of Bessemer steel[100] to the Edgemoor (or Edge Moor) Iron Works, based in Philadelphia, to be delivered by 1880.[100][101][102] The trustees later passed another resolution for another 500 short tons (450 long tons) of Bessemer steel.[100] However, by February 1880 the steel deliveries had not started.[103] That October, the bridge trustees questioned Edgemoor's president about the delay in steel deliveries.[104] Despite Edgemoor's assurances that the contract would be fulfilled, the deliveries still had not been completed by November 1881.[105] Brooklyn mayor Seth Low, who became part of the board of trustees in 1882, became the chairman of a committee tasked to investigate Edgemoor's failure to fulfill the contract. When questioned, Edgemoor's president stated that the delays were the fault of another contractor, the Cambria Iron Company, who was manufacturing the eyebars for the bridge trusses; at that point, the contract was supposed to be complete by October 1882.[106][107]

Further complicating the situation, Washington Roebling had failed to appear at the trustees' meeting in June 1882, since he had gone to Newport, Rhode Island.[106] After the news media discovered this, most of the newspapers called for Roebling to be fired as chief engineer, except for the Daily State Gazette of Trenton, New Jersey, and the Brooklyn Daily Eagle.[108] Some of the longstanding trustees, including Henry C. Murphy, James S. T. Stranahan, and William C. Kingsley, were willing to vouch for Roebling, since construction progress on the Brooklyn Bridge was still ongoing. However, Roebling's behavior was considered suspect among the younger trustees who had joined the board more recently.[108]

Construction on the bridge itself was noted in formal reports that Murphy presented each month to the mayors of New York and Brooklyn. For example, Murphy's report in August 1882 noted that the month's progress included 114 intermediate cords erected within a week, as well as 72 diagonal stays, 60 posts, and numerous floor beams, bridging trusses, and stay bars.[108][109] By early 1883, the Brooklyn Bridge was considered mostly completed and was projected to open that June.[110] Contracts for bridge lighting were awarded by February 1883,[110] and a toll scheme was approved that March.[111]

Opposition

There was substantial opposition to the bridge's construction from shipbuilders and merchants located to the north, who argued that the bridge would not provide sufficient clearance underneath for ships.[112] In May 1876, these groups, led by Abraham Miller, filed a lawsuit in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York against the cities of New York and Brooklyn.[112][113]

In 1879, an Assembly Sub-Committee on Commerce and Navigation began an investigation into the Brooklyn Bridge. A seaman who had been hired to determine the height of the span, testified to the committee about the difficulties that ship masters would experience in bringing their ships under the bridge when it was completed. Another witness, Edward Wellman Serrell, a civil engineer, said that the calculations of the bridge's assumed strength were incorrect.[114][115] The Supreme Court decided in 1883 that the Brooklyn Bridge was a lawful structure.[116]

Opening  Newspaper headline announcing the Brooklyn Bridge's opening

The New York and Brooklyn Bridge was opened for use on May 24, 1883. Thousands of people attended the opening ceremony, and many ships were present in the East River for the occasion.[117] Officially, Emily Warren Roebling was the first to cross the bridge.[118] The bridge opening was also attended by U.S. president Chester A. Arthur and New York mayor Franklin Edson, who crossed the bridge and shook hands with Brooklyn mayor Seth Low at the Brooklyn end.[119] Abram Hewitt gave the principal address.[120][121]

It is not the work of any one man or of any one age. It is the result of the study, of the experience, and of the knowledge of many men in many ages. It is not merely a creation; it is a growth. It stands before us today as the sum and epitome of human knowledge; as the very heir of the ages; as the latest glory of centuries of patient observation, profound study and accumulated skill, gained, step by step, in the never-ending struggle of man to subdue the forces of nature to his control and use.

Though Washington Roebling was unable to attend the ceremony (and rarely visited the site again), he held a celebratory banquet at his house on the day of the bridge opening. Further festivity included the performance by a band, gunfire from ships, and a fireworks display.[119] On that first day, a total of 1,800 vehicles and 150,300 people crossed the span.[118] Less than a week after the Brooklyn Bridge opened, ferry crews reported a sharp drop in patronage, while the bridge's toll operators were processing over a hundred people a minute.[123] However, cross-river ferries continued to operate until 1942.[124]

 "Bird's-Eye View of the Great New York and Brooklyn Bridge and Grand Display of Fire Works on Opening Night"

The bridge had cost US$15.5 million in 1883 dollars (about US$471,107,000 in 2022[125]) to build, of which Brooklyn paid two-thirds.[118][9] The bonds to fund the construction would not be paid off until 1956.[126] An estimated 27 men died during its construction.[118][9] Since the New York and Brooklyn Bridge was the only bridge across the East River at that time, it was also called the East River Bridge.[127] Until the construction of the nearby Williamsburg Bridge in 1903, the New York and Brooklyn Bridge was the longest suspension bridge in the world,[128] 20% longer than any built previously.[129]

At the time of opening, the Brooklyn Bridge was not complete; the proposed public transit across the bridge was still being tested, while the Brooklyn approach was being completed.[130] On May 30, 1883, six days after the opening, a woman falling down a stairway at the Brooklyn approach caused a stampede which resulted in at least twelve people being crushed and killed.[131][124] In subsequent lawsuits, the Brooklyn Bridge Company was acquitted of negligence.[124] However, the company did install emergency phone boxes and additional railings,[132] and the trustees approved a fireproofing plan for the bridge.[133] Public transit service began with the opening of the New York and Brooklyn Bridge Railway, a cable car service, on September 25, 1883.[124][134][135] On May 17, 1884, one of the circus master P. T. Barnum's most famous attractions, Jumbo the elephant, led a parade of 21 elephants over the Brooklyn Bridge. This helped to lessen doubts about the bridge's stability while also promoting Barnum's circus.[136][137][138][139]

1880s to 1910s  Eastward view in 1899 The main steel cables of the Brooklyn Bridge are visible on the left side of this photo in 1938.

Patronage across the Brooklyn Bridge increased in the years after it opened; a million people paid to cross in the six first months. The bridge carried 8.5 million people in 1884, its first full year of operation; this number doubled to 17 million in 1885 and again to 34 million in 1889.[9] Many of these people were cable car passengers.[140] Additionally, about 4.5 million pedestrians a year were crossing the bridge for free by 1892.[141]

The first proposal to make changes to the bridge was sent in only two and a half years after it opened, when Linda Gilbert suggested glass steam-powered elevators and an observatory be added to the bridge and a fee charged for use, which would in part fund the bridge's upkeep and in part fund her prison reform charity.[142] This proposal was considered but not acted upon. Numerous other proposals were made during the first fifty years of the bridge's life.[142] Trolley tracks were added in the center lanes of both roadways in 1898, allowing trolleys to use the bridge as well. That year, the formerly separate City of Brooklyn was unified with New York City, and the Brooklyn Bridge fell under city control.[143][144]

Concerns about the Brooklyn Bridge's safety were raised during the turn of the century. In 1898, traffic backups due to a dead horse caused one of the truss cords to buckle.[145] There were more significant worries after twelve suspender cables snapped in 1901,[136][146][147] though a thorough investigation found no other defects.[148] After the 1901 incident, five inspectors were hired to examine the bridge each day, a service that cost $250,000 a year.[149] The Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company, which operated routes across the Brooklyn Bridge, issued a notice in 1905 saying that the bridge had reached its transit capacity.[136]

By 1890, due to the popularity of the Brooklyn Bridge, there were proposals to construct other bridges across the East River between Manhattan and Long Island.[150] Although a second deck for the Brooklyn Bridge was proposed, it was thought to be infeasible because doing so would overload the bridge's structural capacity.[145] The first new bridge across the East River, the Williamsburg Bridge, opened upstream in 1903 and connected Williamsburg, Brooklyn, with the Lower East Side of Manhattan.[151] This was followed by the Queensboro Bridge between Queens and Manhattan in March 1909,[152] and the Manhattan Bridge between Brooklyn and Manhattan in December 1909.[153] Several subway, railroad, and road tunnels were also constructed, which helped to accelerate the development of Manhattan, Brooklyn, and Queens.[154][3]

1910s to 1940s

Though carriages and cable-car customers had paid tolls ever since the bridge's opening, pedestrians were spared from the tolls originally.[111] By the first decade of the 20th century, pedestrians were also paying tolls.[155] Tolls on all four bridges across the East River—the Brooklyn Bridge, as well as the Manhattan, Williamsburg, and Queensboro bridges to the north—were abolished in July 1911 as part of a populist policy initiative headed by New York City mayor William Jay Gaynor.[156][157] The city government passed a bill to officially name the structure the "Brooklyn Bridge" in January 1915.[158]

Ostensibly in an attempt to reduce traffic on nearby city streets, Grover Whalen, the commissioner of Plant and Structures, banned motor vehicles from the Brooklyn Bridge in July 1922.[159] The real reason for the ban was an incident the same year where two cables slipped due to high traffic loads.[136][160] Both Whalen and Roebling called for the renovation of the Brooklyn Bridge and the construction of a parallel bridge, though the parallel bridge was never built.[136][160][161] Whalen's successor William Wirt Mills announced in 1924 that a new wood-block pavement would be installed, permitting motor vehicles to use the bridge again;[162][163] motor traffic was again allowed on the bridge starting on May 12, 1925.[164][165]

As part of an experiment, starting in November 1946, the Manhattan-bound roadway carried Brooklyn-bound traffic during the evening rush hours. The experiment ended after two months due to complaints about congestion.[166]

Mid- to late 20th century Upgrades  Ramp from the Brooklyn Bridge to FDR Drive (pictured in 2008), completed c. 1969

The first major upgrade to the Brooklyn Bridge commenced in 1948, when a contract for redesigning the roadways was awarded to David B. Steinman.[167][168] The renovation was expected to double the capacity of the bridge's roadways to nearly 6,000 cars per hour,[167] at a projected cost of $7 million.[169] The renovation included the demolition of both the elevated and the trolley tracks on the roadways, the removal of trusses separating the inner elevated tracks from the existing vehicle lanes and the widening of each roadway from two to three lanes,[169][170] as well as the construction of a new steel-and-concrete floor.[171] In addition, new ramps were added to Adams Street, Cadman Plaza, and the Brooklyn Queens Expressway (BQE) on the Brooklyn side, and to Park Row on the Manhattan side.[172] The bridge was briefly closed to all traffic for the first time ever in January 1950,[173] and the trolley tracks closed that March to allow the widening work to occur.[174][175] During the construction project, one roadway at a time was closed, allowing reduced traffic flows to cross the bridge in one direction only.[176]

The widened south roadway was completed in May 1951,[177] followed by the north roadway in October 1953.[178] The restoration was finished in May 1954 with the completion of the reconstructed elevated promenade.[179][176] While the rebuilding of the span was ongoing, a fallout shelter was constructed beneath the Manhattan approach in anticipation of the Cold War. The abandoned space in one of the masonry arches was stocked with emergency survival supplies for a potential nuclear attack by the Soviet Union; these supplies remained in place half a century later.[180] In addition, defensive barriers were added to the bridge as a safeguard against sabotage.[181]

Simultaneous with the rebuilding of the Brooklyn Bridge, a double-decked viaduct for the BQE was being built through an existing steel overpass of the bridge's Brooklyn approach ramp.[182] The segment of the BQE from Brooklyn Bridge south to Atlantic Avenue opened in June 1954,[183] but the direct ramp from the northbound BQE to the Manhattan-bound Brooklyn Bridge did not open until 1959.[184] The city also widened the Adams Street approach in Brooklyn, between the bridge and Fulton Street, from 60 to 160 feet (18 to 49 m) between 1954 and 1955.[185][186] Subsequently, Boerum Place from Fulton Street south to Atlantic Avenue was also widened.[187] This required the demolition of the old Kings County courthouse.[188] The towers were cleaned in 1958[189] and the Brooklyn anchorage was repaired the next year.[190]

On the Manhattan side, the city approved a controversial rebuilding of the Manhattan entrance plaza in 1953. The project, which would add a grade-separated junction over Park Row, was hotly contested because it would require the demolition of 21 structures, including the old New York World Building.[191] The reconstruction also necessitated the relocation of 410 families on Park Row.[192] In December 1956, the city started a two-year renovation of the plaza. This required the closure of one roadway at a time, as was done during the rebuilding of the bridge itself.[193] Work on redeveloping the area around the Manhattan approach started in the mid-1960s.[194] At the same time, plans were announced for direct ramps to the FDR Drive elevated highway to alleviate congestion at the approach.[195] The ramp from the FDR Drive to the Brooklyn Bridge was opened in 1968,[196] followed by the ramp from the bridge to the FDR Drive the next year.[197] A single ramp from the Manhattan-bound Brooklyn Bridge to northbound Park Row was constructed in 1970.[198] A repainting of the bridge was announced two years later in advance of its 90th anniversary.[199]

Deterioration and late-20th century repair  The Brooklyn Bridge formerly had steps up to the promenade from the Brooklyn approach (seen here in 1982).

The Brooklyn Bridge gradually deteriorated due to age and neglect. While it had 200 full-time dedicated maintenance workers before World War II, that number dropped to five by the late 20th century, and the city as a whole only had 160 bridge maintenance workers.[200] In 1974, heavy vehicles such as vans and buses were banned from the bridge to prevent further erosion of the concrete roadway.[201] A report in The New York Times four years later noted that the cables were visibly fraying and the pedestrian promenade had holes in it.[202] The city began planning to replace all the Brooklyn Bridge's cables at a cost of $115 million, as part of a larger project to renovate all four toll-free East River spans.[203] By 1980, the Brooklyn Bridge was in such dire condition that it faced imminent closure. In some places, half of the strands in the cables were broken.[204]

In June 1981, two of the diagonal stay cables snapped,[205] killing a pedestrian.[206][79] Subsequently, the anchorages were found to have developed rust,[206] and an emergency cable repair was necessitated less than a month later after another cable developed slack.[207] Following the incident, the city accelerated the timetable of its proposed cable replacement,[203] and it commenced a $153 million rehabilitation of the Brooklyn Bridge in advance of the 100th anniversary. As part of the project, the bridge's original suspender cables installed by J. Lloyd Haigh were replaced by Bethlehem Steel in 1986, marking the cables' first replacement since construction.[79] In addition, the staircase at Washington Street in Brooklyn was renovated,[208] the stairs from Tillary and Adams Streets were replaced with a ramp, and the short flights of steps from the promenade to each tower's balcony were removed.[209] In a smaller project, the bridge was floodlit at night starting in 1982 to highlight its architectural features.[210]

Additional problems persisted, and in 1993, high levels of lead were discovered near the bridge's towers.[211] Further emergency repairs were undertaken in mid-1999 after small concrete shards began falling from the bridge into the East River. The concrete deck had been installed during the 1950s renovations and had a lifespan of about 60 years.[212][213] The Park Row exit from the bridge's westbound lanes was closed as a safety measure after the September 11, 2001, attacks on the nearby World Trade Center. That section of Park Row had been closed off since it ran right underneath 1 Police Plaza, the headquarters of the New York City Police Department (NYPD).[214] In early 2003, to save money on electricity, the NYCDOT turned off the bridge's "necklace lights" at night.[215] They were turned back on later that year after several private entities made donations to fund the lights.[216]

21st century

After the 2007 collapse of the I-35W bridge in Minneapolis, public attention focused on the condition of bridges across the U.S. The New York Times reported that the Brooklyn Bridge approach ramps had received a "poor" rating during an inspection in 2007.[217] However, a NYCDOT spokesman said that the poor rating did not indicate a dangerous state but rather implied it required renovation.[218] In 2010, the NYCDOT began renovating the approaches and deck, as well as repainting the suspension span.[219][220] Work included widening two approach ramps from one to two lanes by re-striping a new prefabricated ramp; raising clearance over the eastbound BQE at York Street; seismic retrofitting; replacement of rusted railings and safety barriers; and road deck resurfacing.[221] The work necessitated detours for four years.[222] At the time, the project was scheduled to be completed in 2014;[219] but completion was later delayed to 2015,[223] then again to 2017.[224] The project's cost also increased from $508 million in 2010[219] to $811 million in 2016.[224]

In August 2016, the NYCDOT announced that it would conduct a seven-month, $370,000 study to verify if the bridge could support a heavier upper deck that consisted of an expanded bicycle and pedestrian path. By then, about 10,000 pedestrians and 3,500 cyclists used the pathway on an average weekday.[225] Work on the pedestrian entrance on the Brooklyn side was underway by 2017.[226] The NYCDOT also indicated in 2016 that it planned to reinforce the Brooklyn Bridge's foundations to prevent it from sinking, as well as repair the masonry arches on the approach ramps, which had been damaged by Hurricane Sandy four years earlier.[227] In July 2018, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission approved a further renovation of the Brooklyn Bridge's suspension towers and approach ramps.[228] That December, the federal government gave the city $25 million in funding, which would pay for a $337 million rehabilitation of the bridge approaches and the suspension towers.[229] Work started in late 2019 and was scheduled to be completed in four years.[230] This restoration included removing bricks from the arches and putting fresh concrete behind them, using mortar from the same upstate quarries as the original mortar. The granite arches were also cleaned, revealing the original gray color of the stone, which had long been hidden by grime.[231] Additionally, 56 LED lamps were installed on the bridge at a cost of $2.4 million.[232]

In early 2020, City Council speaker Corey Johnson and the nonprofit Van Alen Institute hosted an international contest to solicit plans for the redesign of the bridge's walkway.[233][234] Ultimately, in January 2021, the city decided to install a two-way protected bike path on the Manhattan-bound roadway, replacing the leftmost vehicular lane. The bike lane would allow the existing promenade to be used exclusively by pedestrians.[235][236] Work on the bike lane started in June 2021,[237][238] and the new path was completed on September 14, 2021.[239][240] Despite the addition of the bike path, the bridge's walkway was still frequently overcrowded,[241] prompting the city to propose in mid-2023 that street vendors be banned from the bridge and others citywide.[242] All vendors were banned from the bridge at the beginning of January 2024.[243] The same month, the bridge's new LED lights were illuminated for the first time.[232]

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