Meroë

mjrwjwꜣt[1] Egyptian hieroglyphs

Near East in 200 BC, showing the Kingdom of Meroe and its neighbours.

Meroë was the southern capital of the Kingdom of Kush. The Kingdom of Kush spanned the period c. 800 BC – c. 350 AD but, initially, its main capital was farther north at Napata.[2] King Aspelta moved the capital to Meroë, considerably farther south than Napata, possibly c. 591 BC,[3] just after the sack of Napata by Egyptian Pharaoh Psamtik II.

Martin Meredith states the Kushite rulers chose Meroë, between the Fifth and Sixth Cataracts, because it was on the fringe of the summer rainfall belt, and the area was rich in iron ore and hardwood for iron working. The location also afforded access to trade routes to the Red Sea. The city of Meroë was located along the middle Nile which is of much importance due to the annual flooding of the Nile river valley and the connection to many major river systems such as the Niger which aided with the production of pottery and iron characteristic to the Meroitic kingdom that allowed for the rise in power of its people.[4] According to partially deciphered Meroitic texts, the name of the city was Medewi.

First Meroitic Period (542–315 BC)

The Kings ruled over Napata and Meroë. The seat of government and the royal palace were in Meroe. The Main temple of Amun is located in Napata, but the temple at Meroe is under construction. Kings and many queens are buried in Nuri, some queens are buried in Meroe, in the West Cemetery.[5] The earliest king is Analmaye (542–538 BC), the latest king of the first phase is Nastasen (335–315 BC)

In the fifth century BC, Greek historian Herodotus described it as "a great city...said to be the mother city of the other Ethiopians."[6][7]

Excavations revealed evidence of important, high ranking Kushite burials, from the Napatan Period (c. 800 – c. 280 BC) in the vicinity of the settlement called the Western cemetery. The importance of the town gradually increased from the beginning of the Meroitic Period, especially from the reign of Arakamani (c. 280 BC) when the royal burial ground was transferred to Meroë from Napata (Gebel Barkal). Royal burials formed the Pyramids of Meroë, containing the burials of the Kings and Queens of Meroë from ca 300 BC to about 350 AD.[8]

Karkamani's pyramid (513–503 BC), Nuri

Jewelry found on the mummy of Nubian King Amaninatakilebte (538–519 BC). Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

Stela of king Siaspiqa (487–468 BC).

Portrait of King Nastasen (330–310 BC)

Second Meroitic Period (3rd century BC)

The "Archer King", an unknown king of Meroe, 3rd century BC. National Museum of Sudan.

The seat of government and the royal palace are in Meroe. Kings and many queens are buried in Meroe, in the South Cemetery. Napata's only importance is the Amun Temple.[5] The first King of the period is Aktisanes (Early 3rd century BC), the last king of the period is Sabrakamani (first half 3rd century BC).

Third Meroitic Period (270 BC – 1st century AD)

The seat of government and the royal palace are in Meroe. Kings are buried in Meroe, in the North Cemetery, and Queens in West Cemetery. Napata's only importance is the Amun Temple. Meroe flourishes and many building projects are undertaken.[5] The first king of the period is Arakamani (270–260 BC), the last ruler is Queen Amanitore (mid/late 1st century AD)

Many beautiful artifacts were found in Meroitic tombs from around this time.

Pyramids of Meroë - Northern Cemetery

Queen Shanakdakhete (170–150 BC)

Necklace made of 54 composite human head and ram's head gold pendants with a small carnelian bead between each. Meroitic Period, 270–50 BC

Golden Bracelet found in the tomb of a member of the Royal Family in Gebel Barkal. 250–100 BC

King Natakamani (early 1st century AD)

Conflict with Rome

Rome's conquest of Egypt led to border skirmishes and incursions by Meroë beyond the Roman borders. In 23 BC the Roman governor of Egypt, Publius Petronius, to end the Meroitic raids, invaded Nubia in response to a Nubian attack on southern Egypt, pillaging the north of the region and sacking Napata (22 BC) before returning home. In retaliation, the Nubians crossed the lower border of Egypt and looted many statues (among other things) from the Egyptian towns near the first cataract of the Nile at Aswan. Roman forces later reclaimed many of the statues intact, and others were returned following the peace treaty signed in 22 BC between Rome and Meroë under Augustus and Amanirenas, respectively. One looted head though, from a statue of the emperor Augustus, was buried under the steps of a temple. It is now kept in the British Museum.[9]

Relief of Kandake Amanitore, circa 50 AD

The next recorded contact between Rome and Meroë was in the autumn of 61 AD. The Emperor Nero sent a party of Praetorian soldiers under the command of a tribune and two centurions into this country, who reached the city of Meroë where they were given an escort, then proceeded up the White Nile until they encountered the swamps of the Sudd. This marked the limit of Roman penetration into Africa.[10]

The period following Petronius' punitive expedition is marked by abundant trade finds at sites in Meroë. L. P. Kirwan provides a short list of finds from archeological sites in that country.[10]: 18f However, the kingdom of Meroë began to fade as a power by the 1st or 2nd century AD, sapped by the war with Roman Egypt and the decline of its traditional industries.[11]

Meroë is mentioned succinctly in the 1st century AD Periplus of the Erythraean Sea:

2. On the right-hand coast next below Berenice is the country of the Berbers. Along the shore are the Fish-Eaters, living in scattered caves in the narrow valleys. Farther inland are the Berbers, and beyond them the Wild-flesh-Eaters and Calf-Eaters, each tribe governed by its chief; and behind them, farther inland, in the country towards the west, there lies a city called Meroe.

— Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chap.2

Fourth Meroitic Period (1st century – 4th century AD)

Lamp with handle in the shape of a horse, from the pyramid of Queen Amanikhatashan in Meroë (c. 62 – c. 85 AD). Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Necklace from Meroë. 50–320 AD. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

This was the twilight of the Meroitic Culture. Kings were buried in Meroe, in the North Cemetery, and Queens in West Cemetery. In 350 AD Meroe was destroyed by Axum.[5] The first king of the fourth period was Shorkaror (1st century AD), while the last rulers may have been King Yesebokheamani or King Talakhidamani in the 4th century AD.

A stele of Ge'ez of an unnamed ruler of the Kingdom of Aksum thought of as Ezana was found at the site of Meroë; from his description, in Greek, that he was "King of the Aksumites and the Omerites," (i.e. of Aksum and Himyar) it is likely this king ruled sometime around 330.[12] Another inscription in Greek gives the regnal claims of Ezana:[13][14][15]

I, Ezana, King of the Axumites and Himyarites and of Reeidan and of the Sabaites and of Sileel (?) and of Hasa and of the Bougaites and of Taimo...

— Greek inscription of Ezana.[13][14][16]

While some authorities interpret these inscriptions as proof that the Axumites destroyed the kingdom of Meroe, others note that archeological evidence points to an economic and political decline in Meroe around 300.[17] Moreover, some view the stele as military aid from Aksum to Meroe to quell down the revolt and rebellion by the Nuba. However, conclusive evidence and proof to which view is correct is not currently present.

^ Gauthier, Henri (1926). Dictionnaire des Noms Géographiques Contenus dans les Textes Hiéroglyphiques. Vol. 3. p. 12. ^ Török, László (1997). The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic Civilization. Handbuch der Orientalistik. Erste Abteilung, Nahe und der Mittlere Osten. Vol. 31. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-10448-8. ^ Festus Ugboaja Ohaegbulam (1 October 1990). Towards an understanding of the African experience from historical and contemporary perspectives. University Press of America. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-8191-7941-8. Retrieved 17 March 2011. ^ Cite error: The named reference jstor183595 was invoked but never defined (see the help page). ^ a b c d Dows Dunham, Notes on the History of Kush 850 B. C. – A. D. 350, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 50, No. 3 (July – September , 1946), pp. 378–388 ^ Herodotus (1949). Herodotus. Translated by J. Enoch Powell. Translated by Enoch Powell. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 121–122. ^ Connah, Graham (1987). African Civilizations: Precolonial Cities and States in Tropical Africa: An Archaeological Perspective. Cambridge University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-521-26666-6. ^ George A. Reisner, The Pyramids of Meroë and the Candaces of Ethiopia, Museum of Fine Arts Bulletin, Vol. 21, No. 124 (Apr., 1923), pp. 11–27 ^ "Bronze head of Augustus". British Museum. 1999. Archived from the original on 10 February 2008. Retrieved 14 June 2008. ^ a b Kirwan, L.P. (1957). "Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier". The Geographical Journal. London: Royal Geographical Society, with the Institute of British Geographers. 123 (1): 13–19. doi:10.2307/1790717. JSTOR 1790717. ^ "Nubia". BBC World Service. British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 6 September 2012. ^ Fisher, Greg (27 November 2019). Rome, Persia, and Arabia: Shaping the Middle East from Pompey to Muhammad. Routledge. p. 137. ISBN 978-1-000-74090-5. ^ a b Tabbernee, William (18 November 2014). Early Christianity in Contexts: An Exploration across Cultures and Continents. Baker Academic. p. 252. ISBN 978-1-4412-4571-7. ^ a b Anfray, Francis; Caquot, André; Nautin, Pierre (1970). "Une nouvelle inscription grecque d'Ezana, roi d'Axoum". Journal des Savants. 4 (1): 266. doi:10.3406/jds.1970.1235.|quote=Moi, Ézana, roi des Axoumites, des Himyarites, de Reeidan, des Sabéens, de S[il]éel, de Kasô, des Bedja et de Tiamô, Bisi Alêne, fils de Elle-Amida et serviteur du Christ ^ Valpy, Abraham John; Barker, Edmund Henry (28 February 2013). The Classical Journal. Cambridge University Press. p. 86. ISBN 9781108057820. ^ Gibbon, Edward (14 February 2016). THE HISTORY OF THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE (All 6 Volumes): From the Height of the Roman Empire, the Age of Trajan and the Antonines - to the Fall of Byzantium; Including a Review of the Crusades, and the State of Rome during the Middle Ages. e-artnow. p. Note 137. ISBN 978-80-268-5034-2. ^ Munro-Hay, Stuart C. (1991). Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 79, 224. ISBN 978-0-7486-0106-6.