Context of Jamaica

Jamaica ( (listen); Jamaican Patois: Jumieka) is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea. Spanning 10,990 square kilometres (4,240 sq mi) in area, it is the third largest islandafter Cuba and Hispaniolaof the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean. Jamaica lies about 145 km (90 mi) south of Cuba, and 191 km (119 mi) west of Hispaniola (the island containing the countries of Haiti and the Dominican Republic); the British Overseas Territory of the Cayman Islands lies some 215 km (134 mi) to the north-west.

Originally inhabited by the indigenous Taíno peoples, the island came under Spanish rule following the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1494. Many of the indigenous people either were killed or died of diseases, after which the Spanish brought large numbers of African ...Read more

Jamaica ( (listen); Jamaican Patois: Jumieka) is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea. Spanning 10,990 square kilometres (4,240 sq mi) in area, it is the third largest islandafter Cuba and Hispaniolaof the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean. Jamaica lies about 145 km (90 mi) south of Cuba, and 191 km (119 mi) west of Hispaniola (the island containing the countries of Haiti and the Dominican Republic); the British Overseas Territory of the Cayman Islands lies some 215 km (134 mi) to the north-west.

Originally inhabited by the indigenous Taíno peoples, the island came under Spanish rule following the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1494. Many of the indigenous people either were killed or died of diseases, after which the Spanish brought large numbers of African slaves to Jamaica as labourers. The island remained a possession of Spain until 1655, when England (later Great Britain) conquered it, renaming it Jamaica. Under British colonial rule Jamaica became a leading sugar exporter, with a plantation economy dependent on the African slaves and later their descendants. The British fully emancipated all slaves in 1838, and many freedmen chose to have subsistence farms rather than to work on plantations. Beginning in the 1840s, the British began using Chinese and Indian indentured labour to work on plantations. The island achieved independence from the United Kingdom on 6 August 1962.

With 2.8 million people, Jamaica is the third-most populous Anglophone country in the Americas (after the United States and Canada), and the fourth-most populous country in the Caribbean. Kingston is the country's capital and largest city. The majority of Jamaicans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, with significant European, East Asian (primarily Chinese), Indian, Lebanese, and mixed-race minorities. Due to a high rate of emigration for work since the 1960s, there is a large Jamaican diaspora, particularly in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The country has a global influence that belies its small size; it was the birthplace of the Rastafari religion, reggae music (and associated genres such as dub, ska and dancehall), and it is internationally prominent in sports, most notably cricket, sprinting and athletics. Jamaica is often considered the world's least populous cultural superpower.

Jamaica is an upper-middle income country with an economy heavily dependent on tourism; it has an average of 4.3 million tourists a year. Jamaica performs favourably in measures of press freedom, democratic governance and sustainable well-being. Politically it is a Commonwealth realm, with Charles III as its king. His appointed representative in the country is the Governor-General of Jamaica, an office held by Patrick Allen since 2009. Andrew Holness has served as Prime Minister of Jamaica since March 2016. Jamaica is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy with legislative power vested in the bicameral Parliament of Jamaica, consisting of an appointed Senate and a directly elected House of Representatives.

More about Jamaica

Basic information
  • Currency Jamaican dollar
  • Calling code +1876
  • Internet domain .jm
  • Mains voltage 116V/50Hz
  • Democracy index 6.96
Population, Area & Driving side
  • Population 2734093
  • Area 10991
  • Driving side left
History
  • Prehistory

    Humans have inhabited Jamaica from as early as 4000–1000 BC. Little is known of these early peoples.[1] Another group, known as the "Redware people" after their pottery, arrived circa 600 AD,[2] followed by the Taíno circa 800 AD, who most likely came from South America.[2][3] They practised an agrarian and fishing economy, and at their height are thought to have numbered some 60,000 people, grouped into around 200 villages headed by caciques (chiefs).[2] The south coast of Jamaica was the most populated, especially around the area now known as Old Harbour.[1]

    Though often thought to have become extinct following contact with Europeans, the Taíno in fact still inhabited Jamaica when the English took control of the island in 1655.[1] Some fled into interior regions, merging with African Maroon communities.[4][5][6] The Jamaican National Heritage Trust is attempting to locate and document any remaining evidence of the Taíno.[7]

    ...Read more
    Prehistory

    Humans have inhabited Jamaica from as early as 4000–1000 BC. Little is known of these early peoples.[1] Another group, known as the "Redware people" after their pottery, arrived circa 600 AD,[2] followed by the Taíno circa 800 AD, who most likely came from South America.[2][3] They practised an agrarian and fishing economy, and at their height are thought to have numbered some 60,000 people, grouped into around 200 villages headed by caciques (chiefs).[2] The south coast of Jamaica was the most populated, especially around the area now known as Old Harbour.[1]

    Though often thought to have become extinct following contact with Europeans, the Taíno in fact still inhabited Jamaica when the English took control of the island in 1655.[1] Some fled into interior regions, merging with African Maroon communities.[4][5][6] The Jamaican National Heritage Trust is attempting to locate and document any remaining evidence of the Taíno.[7]

    Spanish rule (1509–1655)

    Christopher Columbus was the first European to see Jamaica, claiming the island for Spain after landing there in 1494 on his second voyage to the Americas.[2] His probable landing point was Dry Harbour, called Discovery Bay,[8] and St. Ann's Bay was named "Saint Gloria" by Columbus, as the first sighting of the land. He later returned in 1503; however, he was shipwrecked and he and his crew were forced to live on Jamaica for a year while waiting to be rescued.[9]

    One and a half kilometres west of St. Ann's Bay is the site of the first Spanish settlement on the island, Sevilla, which was established in 1509 by Juan de Esquivel but abandoned around 1524 because it was deemed unhealthy.[10] The capital was moved to Spanish Town, then called St. Jago de la Vega, around 1534 (at present-day St. Catherine).[2][11] Meanwhile, the Taínos began dying in large numbers, both from introduced diseases and from enslavement by the Spanish.[2] As a result, the Spanish began importing slaves from Africa to the island.[12]

    Many slaves managed to escape, forming autonomous communities in remote and easily defended areas in the interior of Jamaica, mixing with the remaining Taino; these communities became known as Maroons.[2] Many Jews fled the Spanish Inquisition to live on the island.[13] They lived as conversos and were often persecuted by the Spanish rulers, and some turned to piracy against the Spanish Empire's shipping.[14]

    By the early 17th century it is estimated that no more than 2,500–3,000 people lived on Jamaica.[2][15][page needed]

    Early British period
     
    Henry Morgan was a famous Caribbean pirate, privateer, plantation owner and slaveholder; he had first come to the West Indies as an indentured servant, like most of the early English colonists.[16]

    The English began taking an interest in the island and, following a failed attempt to conquer Santo Domingo on Hispaniola, Admiral William Penn and General Robert Venables led an invasion of Jamaica in 1655.[17] Battles at Ocho Rios in 1657 and the Rio Nuevo in 1658 resulted in Spanish defeats; in 1660 the Maroon community under the leadership of Juan de Bolas switched sides from the Spanish, and began supporting the English. With their help, the Spanish defeat was secured.[18]

    When the English captured Jamaica, most Spanish colonists fled, with the exception of Spanish Jews, who chose to remain on the island. Spanish slave holders freed their slaves before leaving Jamaica.[18] Many slaves dispersed into the mountains, joining the already established maroon communities.[19] During the centuries of slavery, Jamaican Maroons established free communities in the mountainous interior of Jamaica, where they maintained their freedom and independence for generations, under the leadership of Maroon leaders such as Juan de Serras.[20]

    Meanwhile, the Spanish made several attempts to re-capture the island, prompting the British to support pirates attacking Spanish ships in the Caribbean; as a result piracy became rampant on Jamaica, with the city of Port Royal becoming notorious for its lawlessness. Spain later recognised English possession of the island with the Treaty of Madrid (1670).[21] After that, the English authorities sought to rein in the worst excesses of the pirates.[2]

    In 1660, the population of Jamaica was about 4,500 white and 1,500 black.[22] By the early 1670s, as the English developed sugar cane plantations worked by large numbers of slaves, black Africans formed a majority of the population.[23] The Irish in Jamaica also formed a large part of the island's early population, making up two-thirds of the white population on the island in the late 17th century, twice that of the English population. They were brought in as indentured labourers and soldiers after the conquest of 1655. The majority of Irish were transported by force as political prisoners of war from Ireland as a result of the ongoing Wars of the Three Kingdoms.[24] Migration of large numbers of Irish to the island continued into the 18th century.[25]

    A limited form of local government was introduced with the creation of the House of Assembly of Jamaica in 1664; however, it represented only a tiny number of rich plantation owners.[26] In 1692, the colony was rocked by an earthquake that resulted in several thousand deaths and the almost complete destruction of Port Royal.[27]

    18th–19th centuries
     
    A plantation set alight during the Baptist War of 1831–32

    During the 1700s the economy boomed, based largely on sugar and other crops for export such as coffee, cotton and indigo. All these crops were worked by black slaves, who lived short and often brutal lives with no rights, being the property of a small planter-class.[2] In the 18th century, slaves ran away and joined the Maroons in increasing numbers, and resulted in The First Maroon War (1728 – 1739/40), which ended in stalemate. The British government sued for peace, and signed treaties with the Leeward Maroons led by Cudjoe and Accompong in 1739, and the Windward Maroons led by Quao and Queen Nanny in 1740.[28]

    A large slave rebellion, known as Tacky's War, broke out in 1760 but was defeated by the British and their Maroon allies.[29] After the second conflict in 1795–96, many Maroons from the Maroon town of Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town) were expelled to Nova Scotia and, later, Sierra Leone.[2] Many slaves ran away and formed independent communities under the leadership of escaped slaves such as Three-Fingered Jack, Cuffee and at Me-no-Sen-You-no-Come.[30]

    By the beginning of the 19th century, Jamaica's dependence on slave labour and a plantation economy had resulted in black people outnumbering white people by a ratio of almost 20 to 1. Although the British had outlawed the importation of slaves, some were still smuggled in from Spanish colonies and directly from Africa.[citation needed] While planning the abolition of slavery, the British Parliament passed laws to improve conditions for slaves. They banned the use of whips in the field and flogging of women; informed planters that slaves were to be allowed religious instruction, and required a free day during each week when slaves could sell their produce,[31] prohibiting Sunday markets to enable slaves to attend church.[citation needed] The House of Assembly in Jamaica resented and resisted the new laws. Members, with membership then restricted to European-descended Jamaicans, claimed that the slaves were content and objected to Parliament's interference in island affairs. Slave owners feared possible revolts if conditions were lightened.

     
    Harbour Street, Kingston, c. 1820

    The British abolished the slave trade in 1807, but not the institution itself.[32] In 1831 a huge slave rebellion, known as the Baptist War, broke out, led by the Baptist preacher Samuel Sharpe. The rebellion resulted in hundreds of deaths and the destruction of many plantations, and led to ferocious reprisals by the plantocracy class.[33] As a result of rebellions such as these, as well as the efforts of abolitionists, Britain outlawed slavery in its empire in 1834, with full emancipation from chattel slavery declared in 1838.[2] The population in 1834 was 371,070, of whom 15,000 were white, 5,000 free black; 40,000 "coloured" or free people of colour (mixed race); and 311,070 were slaves.[22] The resulting labour shortage prompted the British to begin to "import" indentured servants to supplement the labour pool, as many freedmen resisted working on the plantations.[2] Workers recruited from India began arriving in 1845, Chinese workers in 1854.[34] Many South Asian and Chinese descendants continue to reside in Jamaica today.[35][36]

    Over the next 20 years, several epidemics of cholera, scarlet fever, and smallpox hit the island, killing almost 60,000 people (about 10 per day).[citation needed] Nevertheless, in 1871 the census recorded a population of 506,154 people, 246,573 of which were males, and 259,581 females. Their races were recorded as 13,101 white, 100,346 coloured (mixed black and white), and 392,707 black.[37] This period was marked by an economic slump, with many Jamaicans living in poverty. Dissatisfaction with this, and continued racial discrimination and marginalisation of the black majority, led to the outbreak of the Morant Bay rebellion in 1865 led by Paul Bogle, which was put down by Governor John Eyre with such brutality that he was recalled from his position.[2] His successor, John Peter Grant, enacted a series of social, financial and political reforms whilst aiming to uphold firm British rule over the island, which became a Crown Colony in 1866.[2] In 1872 the capital was transferred from Spanish Town to Kingston.[2]

    Early 20th century
     
    Marcus Garvey, father of the Back to Africa Movement and Jamaica's first National Hero

    In 1907 Jamaica was struck by an earthquake—this, and the subsequent fire, caused immense destruction in Kingston and the deaths of 800–1,000 people.[38][2]

    Unemployment and poverty remained a problem for many Jamaicans. Various movements seeking political change arose as a result, most notably the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League founded by Marcus Garvey in 1917. As well as seeking greater political rights and an improvement for the condition of workers, Garvey was also a prominent Pan-Africanist and proponent of the Back-to-Africa movement.[39] He was also one of the chief inspirations behind Rastafari, a religion founded in Jamaica in the 1930s that combined Christianity with an Afrocentric theology focused on the figure of Haile Selassie, Emperor of Ethiopia. Despite occasional persecution, Rastafari grew to become an established faith on the island, later spreading abroad.

    The Great Depression of the 1930s hit Jamaica hard. As part of the British West Indian labour unrest of 1934–39, Jamaica saw numerous strikes, culminating in a strike in 1938 that turned into a full-blown riot.[40][2][41] As a result, the British government instituted a commission to look into the causes of the disturbances; their report recommended political and economic reforms in Britain's Caribbean colonies.[2][42] A new House of Representatives was established in 1944, elected by universal adult suffrage.[2] During this period Jamaica's two-party system emerged, with the creation of the Jamaican Labour Party (JLP) under Alexander Bustamante and the People's National Party (PNP) under Norman Manley.[2]

    Jamaica slowly gained increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. In 1958 it became a province in the Federation of the West Indies, a federation of several of Britain's Caribbean colonies.[2] Membership of the Federation proved to be divisive, however, and a referendum on the issue saw a slight majority voting to leave.[2] After leaving the Federation, Jamaica attained full independence on 6 August 1962.[2] The new state retained, however, its membership in the Commonwealth of Nations (with the British monarch as head of state) and adopted a Westminster-style parliamentary system. Bustamante, at the age of 78, became the country's first prime minister.[43][44]

    Post-independence era

    Strong economic growth, averaging approximately 6% per annum, marked the first ten years of independence under conservative JLP governments; these were led by successive Prime Ministers Alexander Bustamante, Donald Sangster (who died of natural causes within two months of taking office) and Hugh Shearer.[2] The growth was fuelled by high levels of private investment in bauxite/alumina, tourism, the manufacturing industry and, to a lesser extent, the agricultural sector. In the 1967 Jamaican general election, the JLP were victorious again, winning 33 out of 53 seats, with the PNP taking 20 seats.[45]

    In terms of foreign policy Jamaica became a member of the Non-Aligned Movement, seeking to retain strong ties with Britain and the United States whilst also developing links with Communist states such as Cuba.[2]

     
    Michael Manley, Prime Minister 1972–1980 and 1989–1992

    The optimism of the first decade was accompanied by a growing sense of inequality among many Afro-Jamaicans, and a concern that the benefits of growth were not being shared by the urban poor, many of whom ended up living in crime-ridden shanty towns in Kingston.[2] This, combined with the effects of a slowdown in the global economy in 1970,[citation needed] led to the voters electing the PNP under Michael Manley in 1972. The PNP won 37 seats to the JLP's 16.[45]

    Manley's government enacted various social reforms, such as a higher minimum wage, land reform, legislation for women's equality, greater housing construction and an increase in educational provision.[46][2] Internationally he improved ties with the Communist bloc and vigorously opposed the apartheid regime in South Africa.[2]

    In 1976, the PNP won another landslide, winning 47 seats to the JLP's 13. The turnout was a very high 85 percent.[47] However, the economy faltered in this period due to a combination of internal and external factors (such as the oil shocks).[2] The rivalry between the JLP and PNP became intense, and political and gang-related violence grew significantly in this period.[2]

    By 1980, Jamaica's gross national product had declined to some 25% below its 1972 level.[citation needed] Seeking change, Jamaicans voted the JLP back in in 1980 under Edward Seaga, the JLP winning 51 seats to the PNP's nine seats.[45][2] Firmly anti-Communist, Seaga cut ties with Cuba and sent troops to support the US invasion of Grenada in 1983.[2] The economic deterioration, however, continued into the mid-1980s, exacerbated by a number of factors. The largest and third-largest alumina producers, Alpart and Alcoa, closed; and there was a significant reduction in production by the second-largest producer, Alcan.[citation needed] Reynolds Jamaica Mines, Ltd. left the Jamaican industry. There was also a decline in tourism, which was important to the economy.[citation needed] Owing to rising foreign and local debt, accompanied by large fiscal deficits, the government sought International Monetary Fund (IMF) financing, which was dependent on implementing various austerity measures.[2] These resulted in strikes in 1985 and a decline in support for the Seaga government, exacerbated by criticism of the government's response to the devastation caused by Hurricane Gilbert in 1988.[2][48] Having now de-emphasised socialism and adopting a more centrist position, Michael Manley and the PNP were re-elected in 1989, winning 45 seats to the JLP's 15.[49][2]

    The PNP went on to win a string of elections, under Prime Ministers Michael Manley (1989–1992), P. J. Patterson (1992–2005) and Portia Simpson-Miller (2005–2007). In the 1993 Jamaican general election, Patterson led the PNP to victory, winning 52 seats to the JLP's eight seats. Patterson also won the 1997 Jamaican general election, by another landslide margin of 50 seats to the JLP's 10 seats.[47] Patterson's third consecutive victory came in the 2002 Jamaican general election, when the PNP retained power, but with a reduced seat majority of 34 seats to 26. Patterson stepped down on 26 February 2006, and was replaced by Portia Simpson-Miller, Jamaica's first female Prime Minister. The turnout slowly declined during this period of time, from 67.4% in 1993 to 59.1% in 2002.[49]

    During this period various economic reforms were introduced, such as deregulating the finance sector and floating the Jamaican dollar, as well as greater investment in infrastructure, whilst also retaining a strong social safety net.[2] Political violence, so prevalent in the previous two decades, declined significantly.[2][50]

    In 2007 the PNP was defeated by the JLP by a narrow margin of 32 seats to 28, with a turnout of 61.46%.[51] This election ended 18 years of PNP rule, and Bruce Golding became the new prime minister.[52] Golding's tenure (2007–2010) was dominated by the effects of the global recession, as well as the fallout from an attempt by Jamaican police and military to arrest drug lord Christopher Coke in 2010 which erupted in violence, resulting in over 70 deaths.[2][53] As a result of this incident Golding resigned and was replaced by Andrew Holness in 2011.

    Independence, however widely celebrated in Jamaica, has been questioned in the early 21st century. In 2011, a survey showed that approximately 60% of Jamaicans believe that the country would have been better off had it remained a British colony, with only 17% believing it would have been worse off, citing as problems years of social and fiscal mismanagement in the country.[54][55] However, this poll reflected a greater discontent with the JLP handling of crime and the economy, and as a result, Holness and the JLP were defeated in the 2011 Jamaican general election, which saw Portia Simpson-Miller and the PNP return to power. The number of seats had been increased to 63, and the PNP swept to power with a landslide 42 seats to the JLP's 21. The voter turnout was 53.17%.[56]

    Holness's JLP won the 2016 general election narrowly, defeating Simpson-Miller's PNP, on 25 February. The PNP won 31 seats to the JLP's 32. As a result, Simpson-Miller became Opposition Leader for a second time. The voter turnout dipped below 50% for the first time, registering just 48.37%.[57]

    In the 2020 general election, Andrew Holness made history for the JLP by accomplishing a second consecutive win for the Jamaica Labour Party, winning 49 seats to 14 won by the PNP, led this time by Peter Phillips. The last time a consecutive win occurred for the JLP was in 1980. However, the turnout at this election was just 37%, probably affected by the coronavirus pandemic.[58]

    ^ a b c "The Taino of Jamaica (Jamaica)". Jamaicans.com. 1 April 2001. Archived from the original on 16 April 2009. Retrieved 4 July 2009. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am "Jamaica" Archived 20 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Encyclopædia Britannica. ^ Atkinson, Lesley-Gail. "The Earliest Inhabitants: The Dynamics of the Jamaican Taíno." ^ Fuller, Harcourt; Torres, Jada Benn (2 January 2018). "Investigating the "Taíno" ancestry of the Jamaican Maroons: a new genetic (DNA), historical, and multidisciplinary analysis and case study of the Accompong Town Maroons". Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies. 43 (1): 47–78. doi:10.1080/08263663.2018.1426227. ISSN 0826-3663. S2CID 166204004. ^ Madrilejo, Nicole; Lombard, Holden; Torres, Jada Benn (13 November 2014). "Origins of marronage: Mitochondrial lineages of Jamaica's Accompong Town Maroons". American Journal of Human Biology. 27 (3): 432–437. doi:10.1002/ajhb.22656. ISSN 1042-0533. PMID 25392952. S2CID 30255510. ^ "'I am not extinct'—Jamaican Taino proudly declares ancestry". jamaica-gleaner.com. 5 July 2014. Archived from the original on 6 February 2019. Retrieved 15 February 2019. ^ "Jamaican National Heritage Trust". 28 September 2007. Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 26 June 2010. ^ Pickering, Keith A. "A Christopher Columbus Timeline". Archived from the original on 21 April 2006. Retrieved 18 April 2018. ^ Samuel Eliot Morison, Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Christopher Columbus, 1942, pp. 653–54. Samuel Eliot Morison, Christopher Columbus, Mariner, 1955, pp. 184–92. ^ "History of Jamaica". Jamaica National Heritage Trust. Archived from the original on 26 September 2010. Retrieved 30 September 2010. ^ "Spanish Town". Jamaica National Heritage Trust. Archived from the original on 25 September 2010. Retrieved 30 September 2010. ^ "Jamaican History I". Discover Jamaica. Archived from the original on 5 August 2013. Retrieved 23 August 2013. ^ Arbell, M. (2000). The Portuguese Jews of Jamaica. Canoe Press. ISBN 9789768125699. ^ Kritzler, Edward, The Jewish Pirates of the Caribbean, Anchor, 2009, p. 15, ISBN 0767919521 ^ Parker, Matthew (2011). The Sugar Barons. ^ "Henry Morgan: The Pirate Who Invaded Panama in 1671" Archived 12 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Historynet.com. ^ *Parker, Matthew (2011). The Sugar Barons. ^ a b "Jamaica's English History". Jamaica National Heritage Trust. Archived from the original on 17 March 2016. Retrieved 3 March 2016. ^ Benitez, Suzette. "The Maroons". Archived from the original on 23 August 2010. Retrieved 30 September 2010. ^ Mavis Campbell, The Maroons of Jamaica 1655–1796: a History of Resistance, Collaboration & Betrayal (Massachusetts: Bergin & Garvey, 1988), pp. 14–25. ^ C. V. Black, History of Jamaica (London: Collins, 1975), p. 54. ^ a b Donovan, J. (1910). Jamaica. Archived 29 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company ^ Trevor Burnard, "A failed settler society: marriage and demographic failure in early Jamaica", Journal of Social History, Fall, 1994. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 October 2016. Retrieved 19 August 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "Rodgers, Nini, 'The Irish in the Caribbean 1641–1837: An Overview'". Irlandeses.org. Archived from the original on 19 November 2017. Retrieved 25 September 2017. ^ Cundall, Frank. (1915) Historic Jamaica. London: Institute of Jamaica. p. 15. ^ USGS (21 October 2009). "Historic Earthquakes: Jamaica 1692 June 07 UTC". Archived from the original on 8 April 2012. Retrieved 6 December 2009. ^ Bev Carey, The Maroon Story: The Authentic and Original History of the Maroons in the History of Jamaica 1490–1880 (Kingston, Jamaica: Agouti Press, 1997), pp. 315–355. ^ "Jamaican Culture". Jamaicans.com. 20 June 2014. Archived from the original on 16 October 2015. Retrieved 16 April 2015. ^ Michael Sivapragasam, After the Treaties: A Social, Economic and Demographic History of Maroon Society in Jamaica, 1739–1842 Archived 20 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine, PhD Dissertation, African-Caribbean Institute of Jamaica library (Southampton: Southampton University, 2018), pp. 109–117, 182–193. ^ History of the Catholic Church in Jamaica, ISBN 978-0-829-40544-6, p. 68. ^ The Sugar Revolutions and Slavery Archived 22 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine, U.S. Library of Congress. ^ Révauger, Cécile (October 2008). The Abolition of Slavery – The British Debate 1787–1840. Presse Universitaire de France. pp. 107–108. ISBN 978-2-13-057110-0. ^ "Embassy of Jamaica, Washington, DC". www.embassyofjamaica.org. Archived from the original on 20 June 2008. Retrieved 27 May 2017. ^ Tortello, Rebecca (3 November 2003). "The Arrival of the Indians". The Jamaica Gleaner. Retrieved 27 May 2017.[permanent dead link] ^ Hemlock, Doreen (17 April 2005). "Out of Many, One People: Chinese-Jamaicans Treasure Their Roots and Their Communities". The Sun-Sentinel. Archived from the original on 9 November 2017. Retrieved 27 May 2017. ^ Handbook of Jamaica. Google Books: Jamaica Government. 1908. p. 37. ^ J. F. Wilson Earthquakes and Volcanoes: Hot Springs Archived 15 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine, pg. 70, BiblioLife (2008), ISBN 0-554-56496-3 ^ "Historian situates 'back-to-Africa' movements in broad context". 1 March 2006. Stanford.edu. March 2006. Archived from the original on 29 July 2012. Retrieved 24 August 2013. ^ Hamilton, Janice. Jamaica in Pictures, p. 30. Twenty-First Century Books (2005), ISBN 0-8225-2394-9 ^ Post, Ken (1978). Arise Ye Starvelings: The Jamaican Rebellion of 1938 and its Aftermath. The Hague, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff. ISBN 9024721407. ^ Fraser, Cary (1996). "The Twilight of Colonial Rule in the British West Indies: Nationalist Assertion vs. Imperial Hubris in the 1930s". Journal of Caribbean History. 30 (1/2): 2.[permanent dead link] ^ "Jamaica: Self-government". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 29 December 2012. Retrieved 24 August 2013. ^ "The West Indies Federation". 2011. CARICOM. Archived from the original on 29 September 2013. Retrieved 24 August 2013. ^ a b c Dieter Nohlen (2005), Elections in the Americas: A data handbook, Volume I, p. 430. ^ Communications, Peter Scott Chrysalis. "Trade Unionist". Archived from the original on 28 April 2018. Retrieved 11 February 2019. ^ a b Dieter Nohlen (2005) Elections in the Americas: A data handbook, Volume I, p. 430. ^ "Showdown in Jamaica". The New York Times. 27 November 1988. Archived from the original on 19 September 2016. Retrieved 19 September 2016. ^ a b Nohlen, D (2005) Elections in the Americas: A data handbook, Volume I, p. 430, ISBN 978-0-19-928357-6. ^ Franklyn, Delano (ed.): 2002. The Challenges of Change: P. J. Patterson Budget Presentations 1992–2002. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle Publishers. ^ "Jamaican general election results 3 September 2007". Caribbean Elections: Jamaican Election Centre. Archived from the original on 5 December 2020. Retrieved 24 December 2020. ^ Pollster's diary: virtual motion picture of campaign 2007 Archived 2008-06-22 at the Wayback Machine, Jamaica Gleaner, 9 September 2007. ^ "OAS body raises concerns over Jamaica as death toll rises". CNN. 27 May 2010. Archived from the original on 30 May 2010. Retrieved 27 May 2010. ^ "Give Us The Queen!". The Gleaner. 28 June 2011. Archived from the original on 9 February 2012. Retrieved 13 February 2017. ^ Ghosh, Palash (29 June 2011). "Most Jamaicans Would Prefer To Remain British". International Business Times. Archived from the original on 14 February 2017. Retrieved 13 February 2017. ^ "Jamaican general election results 29 December 2011". Caribbean Elections: Jamaican Election Centre. Archived from the original on 8 December 2020. Retrieved 24 December 2020. ^ "Jamaican general election results 25 February 2016". Caribbean Elections: Jamaican Election Centre. Archived from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 24 December 2020. ^ JLP Trounces PNP 49 To 14 Seats Archived 5 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine The Gleaner, 3 September 2020
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Stay safe
  • Stay safe
    Travel Warning  WARNING: The LGBT community in Jamaica is a closeted one, and open display of such orientations may result in open contempt and possible violence. The government is yet to implement laws and policies protecting the rights of LGBT travellers, and indeed some same-sex sexual activity is illegal....Read more
    Stay safe
    Travel Warning  WARNING: The LGBT community in Jamaica is a closeted one, and open display of such orientations may result in open contempt and possible violence. The government is yet to implement laws and policies protecting the rights of LGBT travellers, and indeed some same-sex sexual activity is illegal. LGBT travellers should not openly display their orientation, as this has led to open aggressive acts of violence against travellers and locals.
    Government travel advisories
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    (Information last updated 21 Aug 2020)

    Beware of rapists at resorts, as advised by travel advisories. Jamaica has the 2nd highest murder rate in the world. As in any other country, should any emergency situation arise, after calling 119 for the police or 110 for the fire brigade or ambulance, you might want to contact your government's embassy or consulate. Governments usually advise travellers staying in Jamaica for an extended period of time to notify their embassy or consulate so they can be contacted in the case of emergency.

    If you are approached by a Jamaican looking to sell you drugs or anything else that you are not interested in buying, the conversation will most likely go like this: "Is this your first time on the island?" Respond: "No, I've been here many times before" (even if it is not true or as he will less likely think you are gullible). Next, they will ask "Where are you staying?" Respond with a vague answer: for instance, if you are approached on Seven Mile Beach, respond by saying "Down the street". If asked "Which resort?", respond with another vague answer. They will see that you are not stupid nor ready to be taken advantage of. They will appear to be engaging in friendly conversation, but once you are marked a sucker (like "It's my first time here" "I'm staying at Negril Gardens"), you will be harassed. If you are further pushed to buy drugs or something else, calmly tell them: "I've been to this island many times before: please don't waste your time trying to sell me something. I'm not interested." They should leave you alone, they may even say "Respect," and pound your fist.

    The cultural and legal abhorrence against homosexuals (battymen) in Jamaica is far-reaching, and not only from a legal perspective, from which anal sex may be punished with up to 10 years. However, heterosexual anal sex is gaining in popularity, and while illegal, it has never been prosecuted by the state. It is advisable to avoid displaying affection to people of the same sex in public, especially between two men - Jamaica is a nation notorious for its persistent intolerance of homosexual behaviour, gay bashings are not uncommon (particularly in popular reggae and dancehall music in Jamaica) and victims would be met with indifference by the authorities. Lesbians are more widely accepted by younger Jamaicans, and it is not unusual to see lesbians openly enjoying the 'sights' from the front row at one of Kingston's strip clubs. Hotels and resorts have a somewhat tolerant attitude towards openly homosexual behaviour, due to partially enforced anti-discrimination laws. But simply put, Jamaica is not a suitable destination for LGBT tourism.

    Marijuana, (locally known as ganja) although cheap, plentiful and powerful, is illegal on the island. Foreigners can be arrested and jailed for drug use. Jamaican prisons are very basic and places you would want to avoid at all costs.

    If in need of police, dial 119, just don't expect them to show up on the spot.

    Drugs and alcohol are prevalent. Armed men may pose a threat to women in some areas. Inner-city parts of the island such as Spanish Town and some neighbourhoods in Kingston (Trench Town, etc.) should be avoided even during the day. However, those who are interested in visiting the Culture Yard in Trench Town should be safe if they go during daylight hours and with a hired local guide, which should not be terribly expensive. Be sure to ask for advice from locals before going, and avoid going there around elections, when violence flares up.

    September, October, and November have fewer tourists as this is hurricane season. As a result, the police are encouraged to take their vacation during this time. This reduction in the police force can cause areas like Montego Bay's hip strip to be less safe than they normally are.

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